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Showing 925–936 of 2523 results

  • Irish in America 1850–1929

    Irish in America 1850–1929

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    Early Irish immigration was predominantly Presbyterian, and often gravitated to the frontiers of the time. The Great Famine (1848–52) triggered a massive increase in immigration, which was overwhelmingly Catholic. The newer arrivals usually settled in major urban centres, particularly New York, Boston and Philadelphia. The New England mill towns and... More
  • Irish Penal Laws

    Irish Penal Laws

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    The Irish statesman, Edmund Burke, described the Penal Laws thus: ‘a machine of wise and elaborate contrivance, as well fitted for the oppression, impoverishment and degradation of a people… as ever proceeded from the perverted ingenuity of man’. The Laws were promulgated piecemeal from the Tudor Reformation onwards, then intensified... More
  • Irish Plantations 1605–20

    Irish Plantations 1605–20

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    Although the English first established plantations (confiscated and colonized lands) in Ireland from the 12th century, the 16th–17th centuries plantations were Protestant and displaced Catholic rule in much of Ireland. The first Protestant plantation, established in 1582, was Munster. To settle this region, the English colonizers brutally suppressed resistance (destroying... More
  • Irish Plantations c. 1550–1620

    Irish Plantations c. 1550–1620

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    The ‘plantations’ in Ireland were Crown-sponsored settlements of Protestant migrants on land confiscated from the unruly Irish clans. The system’s culmination occurred in Ulster under the Stuart king, James I. Here the settlement was organized by a mix of ‘Undertakers’ (wealthy colonists who ‘undertook’ to import tenants to populate and... More
  • Irish Pre-Famine Economy 1821–41

    Irish Pre-Famine Economy 1821–41

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    After a boom during the Napoleonic Wars, Ireland’s manufacturing industries stagnated after the Act of Union (1801). Karl Marx (in the 1860s) described Ireland as ‘an agricultural district of England (to which) it yields corn, wool, cattle, industrial and military recruits’. Nevertheless, in the 1841 census, a third of the... More
  • Irish Railways c. 2006

    Irish Railways c. 2006

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    The Irish tail network reached a peak in 1920 with close to 3,440 miles (5,500 km) of track. A long period of retrenchment and decline followed. In the Irish Civil War, anti-Treaty combatants systematically attacked the rail infrastructure, and partition disrupted service patterns, particularly for County Donegal. Poor service, owing... More
  • Irish Separation 1918–23

    Irish Separation 1918–23

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    The General Election of December 1918 produced a landslide for the nationalist Sinn Féin party in Ireland. Many of their 73 elected MPs were in prison – without trial, though purported involvement in a ‘German Plot’. The election was heavily polarized: the second largest party was the Ulster Unionists with... More
  • Iron Age Roundhouse Isle of Man 400 CE

    Iron Age Roundhouse Isle of Man 400 CE

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    The Iron Age on the Isle of Man began around 500 BCE, and – as there was no Roman colonization – extended until c. 500 CE. While the Romans did not invade, the archaeological evidence suggests that marauding from Celtic neighbours was common. Man’s coastline is dotted with promontory forts,... More
  • Iron Age Scotland from c. 800 BCE

    Iron Age Scotland from c. 800 BCE

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    Ironworking appears to have reached Scotland with the Celts around 800 BCE, possibly arriving from Ireland. An eclectic range of habitations date to the period. Crannogs, conical dwellings built on wooden piled platforms over water (lochs and estuaries) were clustered in the Western Isles, Argyll and Galloway. Brochs, two-storey, hollow-walled... More
  • The Route of the Exodus

    Isaac, Jacob and Joseph

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    As with the earlier Deluge and subsequent Exodus, the biblical narratives of Isaac, Jacob and Joseph contain enough detail to suggest some historical basis, but insufficient to attempt any firm chronology. Thomas Mann’s tetralogy Joseph and His Brothers imagines Akhenaten as the pharaoh served by Joseph, and his revolutionary monotheism... More
  • Islam: Expansion to 750

    Islam: Expansion to 750

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    The trajectory of the military expansion of Islam is not dissimilar to the Mongol conquests of Timur or Genghis Khan. The initial phase was painstaking, with many reverses, before the unification of the warring tribes of Arabia in a religious polity, which was followed by an explosive advance, in all... More
  • Islamic Architectural and Archaeological Sites

    Islamic Architectural and Archaeological Sites

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    The mosque is the focal point of Islamic society and, along with tombs, palaces and forts, is the main physical representation of Islam’s influence across different regions over the centuries. These architectural forms facilitated the functions of life in Islamic cultures and their stylistic elements take inspiration from a number... More