The Western Roman Empire came to an end in 476 when the Ostrogoth, Odoacer, deposed Romulus Augustulus. Theoderic the Great killed Odoacer in 493, replacing him as king of Italy and the Ostrogoths. Justinian’s attempts to restore the old Roman Empire from his base in Constantinople were ultimately thwarted by... More
750 CE opened with Marwan II ruling the Umayyad Caliphate, the world’s largest empire. Before the year’s end, he would be toppled and executed in the Abbasid Revolution. In the east, the Tang Empire held sway over China and a swathe of Central Asia: they too would be devastated by... More
Hecataeus was born in Miletus on the Ionian coast of Asia Minor in around 550 BCE. The city was an intellectual powerhouse at the time, and an earlier resident, Anaximander, had already produced a world map schematically similar to the version of Hecataeus. Both maps show a disc-shaped world with... More
The maps of the Greek writer and Roman citizen Ptolemy have not survived in their original form; those we have are medieval reconstructions. An accomplished astronomer and mathematician, he understood that the world of which he was aware was a fraction of the total. There are also substantial inaccuracies in... More
Strabo was a native of Amasya in northwestern Asia Minor, but ventured widely in the Roman empire of the Augustan era, and his Geographia is laced with personal observation and reminiscence, laced with scorn for outlandish travellers’ tales. He borrows heavily from earlier Greek chroniclers including Artemidorus, Polybius and Poseidonius.... More
In its search for raw materials and national prestige, European colonization peaked by 1900, with the exception of the fragmented Spanish Empire. France took possessions in Madagascar and French West Africa, Indochina and the South Pacific. Portugal lost territories in South America and Asia, but expanded into Africa. The Dutch... More
Paleogeographic research indicates that continental drift operates in a broadly cyclical manner, with the continents fragmenting and dispersing, before coalescing once more into a supercontinent. Supercontinents such as Rodinia, Pannotia and Pangaea seemed to have formed at approximate intervals of 400 million years, which would imply that we are moving... More
The lands that would become Israel were set precariously between the imperial powers who vied for supremacy in the Bronze Age Near East. Megiddo was the site of a great battle in which Thutmose III of Egypt defeated a Canaanite confederation in the 15th century BCE, the probable basis for... More
The Yamasee traded extensively with the South Carolinas colony, and acted as mercenaries for the colonists. Their core commodities were deerskins, and Indian slaves, who were sold to work on the colonial rice plantations. By 1715, depletion of deer stocks led to indebtedness to the colonists, who in reparation raids... More
By 1828 three competing customs unions had been established, comprising, collectively, the bulk of the states of the German Confederation, the most notable exception being the territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Although theoretically equivalent, the Prussian-controlled northern union clearly dominated, and when it formed a commercial alliance with the southern... More
Florence (Firenze) became the capital and main cultural centre of Italy’s Tuscany region in the 11th century, and grew into an internationally important commercial hub. In 1252 it introduced its own gold coins, ‘fiorini d’oro’ or ‘florins’, which spread throughout western Europe as the principal trading currency. Control of the... More
The Second Punic War (218–201 BCE) had decisively tilted the balance of power in the Mediterranean from Carthage to Rome. Carthage was forced to pay an annual indemnity for 50 years, and to cede Hispania, Sicily and Sardinia to Rome. In 151 CE, the Carthaginians retaliated against an attack by... More