The underground railroad is a figurative term used to refer to the escape route of African-American runaway slaves to the free North, Canada, Mexico and overseas between 1790 and 1865. The network of secret routes and safe houses, known as stopping stations, criss-crossed much of the US. The fugitives, identified... More
On 18 January 1871, following decades of political turmoil and conflict, the states that comprised Germany were finally united under the leadership of Prussia, marking a significant milestone in the country's history. The unification process was primarily driven by Otto von Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia, who utilised military force... More
The independent Republic of Vermont (1777–91) issued its own coinage and currency, and engaged in diplomatic relations with the Dutch, French and British before becoming the 14th state of the Union. The independent 'State of Frankland' was briefly declared in the western Carolinas in the 1780s before being suppressed: the... More
In the aftermath of independence, the westward expansion of the Union had yet to accrue the inevitability which marked the era of “manifest destiny”. Despite the massive territorial windfall of the Treaty of Paris, the new Republic remained hemmed in by hostile imperial powers, Spain and Britain, and the process... More
Fulwar Skipwith was proclaimed governor of the short-lived 'Republic of West Florida' in November 1810. Within weeks, the 'Republic' had been suppressed by an American military expedition, serving as a convenient pretext for the annexation of the disputed territory from Spain. The expedition had been mounted from Orleans territory, the... More
The Treaty of 1818 with Britain fixed the northern United States border at the 49th parallel, confirming the Red River Basin as American, while providing for joint settlement of the Oregon Country. In the south, Andrew Jacksons 1817–18 Seminole War led, through its overenthusiastic prosecution, to the occupation of much... More
By the Missouri Compromise, Maines admission as a 'free' state (1820) was yoked to Missouris admission the following year as a 'slavery' state. Northern representatives bitterly opposed the spread of slave-holding to the new territories; an amendment prohibited extending slave-holding north of the 36 degrees 30 minutes parallel – a... More
The state of Arkansas was admitted as the 25th state in 1836. The forced removal of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians from the eastern homelands was then at its height, and the main routes of the ‘Trail of Tears’ ran through the new state to the designated resettlement zones... More
In a busy decade, the northern borders with British territory were resolved by the Webster-Ashburton and Oregon Treaties (1842, 1846), and the Union was expanded by the admission of Florida, and the (consensual) annexation of Texas in 1845. A jingoistic war with Mexico followed over disputed borders. Decisive American victory... More
Even as the Union began to realize its ‘manifest destiny’ of dominion ‘from sea to shining sea’, internal contradictions began to threaten disintegration. The Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) abolished the slavery ‘line of demarcation’ proposed by the Missouri Compromise (1830), making the position on slavery in new states a decision for... More
With the secession of the Southern States in 1861, the Union was shattered, and 600,000 lives would be lost in four years of civil war. Yet the process of territorial evolution did not cease. Kansas was admitted as a free state (1861) shortly before the outbreak of war, while West... More
On paper, the United States was relatively quiescent in the 1870s: the only territorial acquisitions were the Juan de Fuca Islands in the northwest (1872) in settlement of a long-running dispute with Canada, the only new state Colorado (admitted in 1876). But the decade saw the pacification of the frontier... More