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The Ties of Trade c. 1300
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The Ties of Trade c. 1300
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By the 1300s the European merchant class were no longer pedlars who hawked goods from town to town but were dealers, ship owners and guild members. The guilds enabled merchants to create trading posts and apply pressure for special trading privileges. Some guilds were so powerful they had their own... More
The Toltec State 900–1200
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The Toltec State 900–1200
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The extent to which the Toltecs had dominion over an empire is a matter of dispute. An early ruler, Topiltzin, is reputed to have conquered Yucatan and, certainly the site of Chichen Itza on the peninsula has a strong cultural affinity to definite Toltec sites, like their capital, Tula. Their... More
The Trail of Tears 1838–39
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The Trail of Tears 1838–39
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With the passage of the Indian Removal Act (1830), President Andrew Jackson was furnished with a legislative mechanism for the exchange of Indian land on a voluntary basis. It did not allow forced relocation. Jackson’s immediate targets were the ‘Five Civilized tribes’ (Choctaw, Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw and Seminole). He sought... More
The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade 900–1500
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The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade 900–1500
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Both Muslims and Christians engaged in the slave trade in the Middle Ages, with the only general prohibition being enslavement or trading of co-religionists. The Muslim kingdoms of North Africa dominated trans-Saharan trade was dominated, using as their intermediaries the various African empires that grew to occupy the western and... More
The Travels of Alexis de Tocqueville 1831–32
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The Travels of Alexis de Tocqueville 1831–32
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The libertarian French aristocrat Alexis de Tocqueville arrived in America in 1831 with his friend Gustave de Beaumont, ostensibly to complete a review of the US penal system, but the trip soon metamorphosed into a grand tour, ranging from Quebec to New Orleans. This odyssey would fuel Democracy in America,... More
The Travels of Emperor Hadrian 121–132 CE
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The Travels of Emperor Hadrian 121–132 CE
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Hadrian’s extensive travels were to review the administration of his vast empire and to consolidate his imperial authority. Between 122–125, after strengthening the Upper Rhine/Upper Danube area, Emperor Hadrian and his legions visited Britannia, where he constructed Hadrian’s Wall. The fortified wall marked the northern boundary of the Roman Empire.... More
The Travels of St Paul 46-51 CE
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The Travels of St Paul 46-51 CE
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Saul of Tarsus, born in Asia Minor, was both a Jew and a Roman citizen, who was brought up as a Pharisee. He responded to the emergence of the Jesus movement by becoming an enforcer of pharisaic orthodoxy, travelling from synagogue to synagogue, preaching the persecution of Jews who believed... More
The Travels of St Paul 54–62 CE
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The Travels of St Paul 54–62 CE
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Saul of Tarsus, a Pharisee who preached the persecution of Jews who believed Jesus to be a Messiah, converted to Christianity in c. 36 BCE. He travelled widely to preach the Christian message, and his later journeys took him to the Levant, Anatolia and Greece and as far afield as... More
The Treaties of Roskilde, Copenhagen, Oliva and Kardis 1658–61
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The Treaties of Roskilde, Copenhagen, Oliva and Kardis 1658–61
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The martial King Charles X was appointed commander of Swedish forces in the Thirty Years’ War, just months before the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) was agreed, snuffing out his hopes of glory. He ascended the Swedish throne in 1654, impatient for conquest, and soon declared war on the Polish/Lithuanian commonwealth,... More
The Treaty of Lodi 1454
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The Treaty of Lodi 1454
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From the late 14th century, the city states of northern Italy were engaged in near continuous warfare triggered by the expansionism of the Visconti dynasty in Milan. Pitted against Milan was Florence, but, as the conflict evolved, Venice exploited the disruption by systematically extending its territories westward, initially as the... More
The Treaty of Paris 1783
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The Treaty of Paris 1783
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The Treaty of Paris, signed in Paris in 1783 by America and Britain, recognized American independence. The terms, superficially, seemed generous: land granted to the west of the pre-existing colonies more than doubled the size of the nascent state. But Britain had a sound commercial interest in maintaining constructive relations,... More
The Treaty of Westphalia 1648
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The Treaty of Westphalia 1648
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The negotiations for the peace of Westphalia lasted almost six years, and produced several separate treaties resolving both the Thirty Years’ War (involving France, the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden and various other combatants) and the Eighty Years’ War between Spain and the Netherlands. The main treaties were signed at Munster... More