On 15 September 1916, the British advanced their front line by 1.5 miles (2.5 km), taking the high wood around Pozieres and Bozantin-le-Petit. The German offensive was successfully stalled by French artillery and machine guns, despite their deployment of new aircraft and tactics. The Allies were gradually gaining over the... More
The Battle of the Somme lasted five months along a 15-mile (24-km) front in northern France. Its objective was to relieve pressure on the French fighting at Verdun and to weaken the German army. It was a mainly British offensive, despite an earlier intention to make it predominantly French. However,... More
The Southern Pacific, founded in California in 1865, was absorbed in 1868 by the ‘Big Four’ investors behind the Central Pacific Railroad between Sacramento and Ogden, Utah. Now flush with investment, track was acquired, or built, across the country, completing America’s second transcontinental route in 1883.The introduction of refrigerated rail-cars... More
The Southern Railway (SOU) consists of nearly 150 predecessor lines, the first of which was owned by the South Carolina and Rail Road Co., whose first passenger steam locomotive left Charleston, South Carolina, on Christmas Day, 1830. By 1833, the line extended 136 miles (219 km) southwards from Charleston and... More
In 1127, following the founding of the Jin in the north, the Song was pushed south and re-established itself at Lin’an, beginning the Southern Song era. It was a time of prosperity with a focus on maritime power. A naval force was established, while harbours and ships were built, merchant... More
Having reached Kiev and the eastern bank of the River Dnieper by November 1943, the Soviet army continued its advance westwards along five fronts, completely destroying 18 Wehrmacht and Romanian divisions and inflicting heavy casualties. It is estimated that over 6 million ethnic Ukrainians fought alongside the Russians, helped by... More
Stalin demanded a Soviet ‘sphere of influence’ in eastern Europe at the 1945 Yalta Conference and, thereafter, set about the systematic imposition of Soviet control through Communist one party rule, economic integration (via the institution of Comecon), and military integration (through membership of the Warsaw Pact). In practice, subservience to... More
In March 1937 General Franco decided to halt his stalling assault on Madrid and redirect his efforts to the Republican-held territory on the Bay of Biscay, containing the city of Bilbao, Spain’s main industrial centre. The Nationalist offensive was led by General Mola and supported by indiscriminate German and Italian... More
In 1895 Spanish colonial authorities suppressed an invasion by Cuban liberationists, but a guerrilla insurgency continued, threatening US business interests in Cuban tobacco and sugar. The USS Maine was sent to Havana Harbour to safeguard American citizens on the island. In February 1898, it sank after a massive explosion. The... More
There are two broad models for the spread of agriculture, or indeed any culture: migration and diffusion. The former implies the conquest or displacement of pre-existing hunter-gatherers, the latter their conversion to the new methods by interaction or emulation. The archaeological evidence suggests a more rapid process occurred in the... More
The spread of early Christianity was not rapid, yet in just a few hundred years it grew from a small, often persecuted sect to the dominant western religion. Widespread preaching from apostles such as Paul (it is said he covered 10,000 miles in 30 years) allowed Christian teachings to be... More
The philosophical framework of Confucianism originates from the teachings of Confucius, known in modern Chinese as Kongzi, who was born in 551 BCE. Confucius established a doctrine based upon morality, ethics and leadership by example. Together with other teachings and works of art, these principles were compiled by Confucius and... More