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The Roman Empire c. 117 CE
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The Roman Empire c. 117 CE
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By the time of the death of Emperor Trajan in 117, the Roman Empire had reached its zenith in terms of territorial extent. Trajan succeeded Nerva as Emperor in 98, and from 101 sought to incorporate the wealthy kingdom of Dacia (roughly speaking, present-day Romania), which boasted gold mines. From... More
The Roman Empire c. 180 CE
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The Roman Empire c. 180 CE
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Under Augustus (r. 31 BCE –14 CE) Rome had become one of the world’s greatest empires, which went on to enjoy some 200 years of unrivalled stability (the Pax Romana, or Roman peace). The dynastic struggles of Augustus’s heirs, the Julio-Claudian dynasty, were followed by the much more stable, expansionist... More
The Roman Empire under Constantine 324–37CE
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The Roman Empire under Constantine 324–37CE
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After a series of civil wars, Constantine became sole Roman Emperor from 324–37. He converted to Christianity and made Constantinople (Constantinopolis) in the east, named after himself, his imperial residence. He introduced a series of reforms, including the creation of the Prefectura. These were praetorian guards who were the emperor’s... More
The Roman Empire under Theodosius 395 CE
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The Roman Empire under Theodosius 395 CE
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The Roman Emperor, Theodosius, died in 395 CE, having reigned since 379 as a Christian. He is credited with eliminating paganism and making Christianity the state religion. The empire was divided into a complex system of administrative divisions called dioceses, which were subordinated to three regional prefectures. Theodosius fought two... More
The Roman Empire, Losses to 450
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The Roman Empire, Losses to 450
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After reaching its maximum extent under Trajan, the Roman Empire began a gradual decline from 117 CE onwards. Lowland Scotland between Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall was abandoned as a permanent area of settlement around 185 CE because the resources needed to defend the area outweighed the benefits. Similarly,... More
The Roman Frontier with Germania 70 CE
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The Roman Frontier with Germania 70 CE
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The Rhine and Upper Danube were the natural frontiers that secured the borders of Rome’s dominion. These natural barriers were transformed into a fortified border that marked the edge of Empire and hence the civilized world. These rivers protected the Roman world with the exception of a gap stretching from... More
The Roman Legion 200 BCE
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The Roman Legion 200 BCE
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By 200 BCE, the Romans based their armies around the maniple (‘handful’) of c. 160 men, typically arrayed in the quincunx checkerboard formation; this supplied the flexibility to outmanoeuvre enemies arrayed in a massed phalanx, or respond to more mobile cavalry attack. In battle, the Romans usually placed patrician cavalry... More
The Route of the Exodus
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The Route of the Exodus
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The story of Exodus contains some of the most vivid biblical set-pieces, from the ten plagues unleashed upon the Egyptians, through the inundation of Pharaoh’s army by the ‘Reed’ Sea to the delivery by Moses of the Ten Commandments on Mt Sinai. Taking precise biblical chronology literally, it would have... More
The Route of the Titanic, April 1912
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The Route of the Titanic, April 1912
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The White Star Line commissioned three very large Olympic class ocean liners in 1907 to be built by Harland and Wolff of Belfast, Ireland. Of the three ships, Olympic, Titanic and Britannic the Titanic was the second ship of the class, ordered in 1908 and completed on 2 April 1912.... More
The Russian Civil War March 1918–March 1921
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The Russian Civil War March 1918–March 1921
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After taking control of Petrograd in the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks promptly demobilized the Russian army. Now effectively defenceless, Russia was forced to accept a ruinous treaty at Brest-Litovsk in March, 1918, ceding vast areas of territory to the Central Powers. They were soon embroiled in a complex civil war.... More
The Russian War 1853–56
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The Russian War 1853–56
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The Crimean War represented the breaking point in tensions that had been building across Europe for some time. As part of the Holy Alliance with Prussia and Austria, Russia had assisted Austria in putting down the Hungarian revolution and was intent on engaging the Ottoman Empire without interference. Britain’s interests... More
The Russo-Polish War February 1919–March 1920
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The Russo-Polish War February 1919–March 1920
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In the chaos that engulfed eastern Europe in the wake of the abrupt end of World War I, the conflict between newly re-established Poland and newly Soviet Russia happened almost by accident. The Soviets were preoccupied with their own civil war but, in early 1919, sent forces to suppress rebellions... More