The Race to the Sea was the last mobile phase of the war on the Western Front until the German Spring Offensive in 1918. It arose when the Allied advance after the First Battle of the Marne was halted by well-fortified German defences at the Battle of the Aisne. Each... More
The Rashidun (‘Rightly Guided’) were five close companions of the prophet Muhammad who were, successively, caliphs during the expansion of the Islamic Empire (632–61). The empire dissolved into civil war with the assassination of Caliph Uthman (656–61 (the ‘first Fitna’) and again with the death of the first Umayyad caliph,... More
The Great Schism of 1054, a dispute between Rome and Constantinople over who held jurisdiction over the Church in Sicily, permanently divided Christianity between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church. By 1100 Roman Catholicism reached into most of western and central Europe, with the Pope acting as the centralized... More
Following Saladin’s decisive victory at Hattin in 1187, the Kingdom of Jerusalem sans Jerusalem, was reduced to isolated pockets of coast round Antioch, Tripoli and Tyre. Three armies arrived at intervals in the Holy Land: Leopold V of Austria commanding the imperial German forces; King Philip II with the French;... More
John Knox, the leader of the Scottish Reformation, spent 18 months as a French galley-slave for his early muscular non-conformity. In 1555, with influential lairds, the ‘Lords of the Congregation’, now espousing Protestantism, he returned to Scotland, and soon local ‘reformations’, featuring the ‘cleansing’ of churches and friaries of ‘popish... More
A few month of economic revival following the May 1924 election sent the minority coalition of the DVP (German People’s Party), Centre (Zentrum) Party and DDP (German Democratic Party) back to the polls on 7 December 1924 in the hope that they would gain a working majority. This resulted in... More
Once again the presidential government, led by Franz von Papen (Zentrum/Centre) went to the polls on 31 July 1932, in the hope of securing a parliamentary majority. The elections were held against a backdrop of economic depression, with unemployment at nearly 30 per cent. The were accompanied by political violence;... More
The first elections to Germany’s constituent National Assembly had taken place in the immediate aftermath of World War I, on 19 January 1919. Despite severe social unrest, the elections, in which women voted for the first time, resulted in an absolute majority for the mainstream ‘Weimar Coalition’, made up of... More
The elections on 5 March 1933 came in the wake of months of political intrigue and negotiation. In December 1932 President von Hindenburg had sacked Chancellor von Papen, replacing him with the defence minister, Kurt von Schleicher, who was determined to form a coalition. The aggrieved von Papen then opened... More
Known as the ‘inflation election’, the second Reichstag elections of 4 May 1924 resulted in a minority coalition, composed of the DVP (German People’s Party), Centre (Zentrum) Party and DDP (German Democratic Party). The election came in the wake of a period of intense hyperinflation (1921–23), when the German mark... More
Four years of economic recovery consolidated the position of the democrats in the Reichstag elections held on 20 May 1928. The SPD (Social Democrats) were the clear victors, with 29.8 per cent of the vote and 153 Reichstag seats. By aligning with the Centre (Zentrum) Party, the DDP (German Democratic... More
Chancellor Franz von Papen, who was governing by legislative decree, dissolved parliament in September 1932 in order to pre-empt a motion of no confidence from the Communists, which would have been supported by the National Socialists (Nazis). The elections of 6 November 1932 were the last democratic national election until... More