The Polish/Lithuanian Commonwealth became a victim of ruthless realpolitik, progressively partitioned between Russia, Austria and Prussia (1772–95). The Congress of Vienna (1815), agreed that the Russian emperor would rule his Polish territories separately as their king, respecting their constitution and Sejm (parliament). He ignored these niceties, and adopted a steadily... More
Mithridates V, king of Pontus, was careful to be a loyal ally of the contemporary superpower, Rome, supporting its wars against Carthage and Pergamon, and was given Phrygia as a thank-you present (129 BCE) by the local Consul, Manius Aquilius. The gift was apparently considered over-generous; Aquilius was accused of... More
Before the arrival of Europeans in North America, the numerous Native American tribes had developed different lifestyles and ways of living off the land. In the east, the Mississippian tribal groups were some of the first to transition away from the hunter-gatherer nomadic lifestyle, developing agriculture and settlements on a... More
As the East India Company grew it recruited guards and watchmen to to protect its possessions scattered around India. This group evolved into field armies that were then organized under its three ‘presidencies’, Bengal, Bombay and Madras, hence the Bengal Army, Bombay Army and Madras Army. In 1748 these were... More
With the collapse of the Federalist party and the end of the Congressional Caucus nomination system, there were four main Democratic-Republican candidates running for president in 1824. They were: William H. Crawford (secretary to the treasury and the ‘official’ candidate to replace Monroe); Henry Clay (speaker of the House of... More
By the 1820s, great changes were convulsing the country. New factories were opened, particularly in New England, and an urban working class was emerging. New states such as Ohio adopted the Constitution, which extended the vote to all white adult males. Expansion of the franchise still had far to go,... More
The election of 1832 saw Andrew Jackson opposed by Republican Henry Clay, in his second bid for presidency, and William Wirt, candidate for the Anti-Masonic party. The first ‘third-party’ election, this was also the first time that candidates were chosen by national nominating conventions, rather than congressional caucus or state... More
The election of 1836 was unusual because the Whig party – formed of various anti-Jackson factions including the National Republican party and the Anti-Masonic party – put forward four nominees to stand against the Democratic nominee, Martin Van Buren. These Whig candidates – William Henry Harrison (former Ohio senator and... More
While Martin Van Burren was nominated to run for a second term in office (with Richard Johnson as running mate), the Whig party chose William Henry Harrison (over Henry Clay) with John Tyler as their candidate for vice president. With the two-party political system firmly in place, the opposing campaigns... More
In 1844 the key election issues were territorial expansion, especially the annexation of Texas. Thousands of Americans poured westward to create new lives for themselves and to fulfil the national ambition to own the continent. When the Democratic party held their convention in Baltimore on 27 May they nominated James... More
James Polk had promised to serve just one term as president and, during those four years, achieved his objectives: to re-establish the independent treasury system, lower the tariff, settle the Oregon-boundary dispute and acquire California. Further land acquisition followed the end of the Mexico-American War and a treaty with Great... More
Both the Whig party and the Democratic party were facing internal divisions over slavery – particularly after the Compromise of 1850, a series of resolutions that sought to defuse the growing crisis – and the election of 1852 would be the last for the Whigs. After failure to nominate a... More