Although hostile nomadic tribes were making Red Sea trade difficult for Egypt, the Wawat region in Nubia was beginning to pose a more serious threat to its economic interests. The corridor to sub-Saharan Africa depended on a compliant Nubia and now the Nile trade route from Elephantine to Yam was... More
Although aspects of capitalist policy were introduced under Gorbachev’s perestroika reforms in the late 1980s, large-scale privatization of Russia’s state-owned businesses did not take off until 1992. Russia initially pursued a process of voucher privatization, whereby all citizens received vouchers that could be used to obtain shares. Russia and much... More
The Ōnin War came about when a dispute over the succession of the Ashikaga Shogunate led to civil war. Individuals from the families of two powerful daimyo (feudal lords) led the fighting, namely Hosokawa Katsumoto and Yamana Sozen (the Red Monk), and most of the Shugos (feudal governors) took sides... More
During the Ordovician, there were no landmasses in the northern hemisphere, which was entirely covered by the global ocean of Panthalassa. The southern continents were fused into the supercontinent Gondwanaland, which started the period abutting the equator, but drifted steadily southward. To the west of Gondwana, between the equator and... More
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, several imperial powers including Spain, Russia, the United States and Great Britain, claimed North America’s Northwest coast. After 1824, only the United States, Russia and Britain maintained territorial claims in the region. Both Britain and the US claimed everything west of the... More
The Ostrogoths were eastern Goths (a Germanic tribe) who settled in the area around the Black Sea and constantly made incursions into the Roman provinces. Between 375–450, they were ruled by the Huns, a warrior people from the Eurasian steppes. When Attila the Hun died, they established the Ostrogoth Kingdom,... More
The Ottoman expansion that began in 1453 with the fall of Constantinople to Sultan Mehmed II saw a rapid growth in the Turks’ territorial dominion and a steady increase in their naval reach. Between 1459 and 1478 Mehmed took Serbia, Bosnia, Morea (the Greek Peloponnese), Anatolia, Trabzon and Albania, and... More
At its height, the Ottoman Empire ruled the Middle East and much of northern Africa and eastern Europe, but by the late 1800s, the Empire was in decline. Increasing instability had taken its toll, aided by ethnic and regional groups across the Empire who sought independence. Unsuccessful wars had weakened... More
Following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles, the German protectorate of New Guinea was divided up amongst the victorious Entente powers. The southern part of the protectorate, comprising territory on New Guinea and islands south of the equator, came under the Australian Mandate. New Zealand was awarded German... More
In 1853, Congress allocated money and authorized the Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis, to establish ‘the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean’. Until this time, reaching the west coast from the east required a travel time of several months, either... More
The largest Bronze Age archaeological site is the Palace of Knossos, which was the ceremonial and political centre of Minoan civilization. The palace was built between 1700 and 1400 BCE. It covers 6 acres and has a total of 1,300 interconnected rooms. Parts of it were built up to five... More
The Pale was defined by an Act of Parliament (1488), setting out the (much reduced) area of Ireland still effectively under the direct control of the English king. ‘Beyond the Pale’, the rule of Ireland was effectively parcelled out between resurgent Gaelic chieftains and the largely autonomous Hiberno-Norman earldoms. But... More