A provisional government, the Driemanschap, took over the Netherlands after its liberation from the French by Prussian and Russian forces in 1813. The principality of the United Netherlands was declared and the exiled William Frederick was made ‘Sovereign Prince’ and granted extensive powers. In 1815 the union of the United... More
The Dutch Revolt began in protest against the Spanish ruling monarch, Philip II. The Dutch throne had become one of the many hereditary seats of power that were amassed under the Habsburg Empire. When Charles V began the process of abdication, his son Philip II became king of Spain and... More
Charles V became Holy Roman Emperor in 1506 at the age of six, ruling until 1515 through the regency of his aunt, Margaret of Austria. The empire soon became embroiled in war with France, with one issue being Charles’s requirement for the provinces of Flanders, Artois, and Tournai to pay... More
The New (or Neo) Babylonian Empire was created from the ashes of the old Babylonian empire, ruled by Assyrian kings. In 626 BCE, Nabopolassar, a governor of Babylonia, was determined to claim the title of ‘king of Babylonia’. He succeeded in overthrowing the Assyrian rulers and established himself as king.... More
Established after the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000–1523 BCE) the era of the New Kingdom (c. 1523–712 BCE) was when the Egyptian empire peaked. This was the time of the warrior pharaohs and began with the defeat of the foreign Hyksos kings. Thebes became Egypt’s new capital. There was a programme... More
The wave of national self-determination which swept eastern Europe started with Bolshevik revolution in Russia, and Lenin’s declaration of the people's ‘general right of self-determination’. Finland promptly declared independence in December 1917, which Soviet Russia confirmed. After declaring independence in 1918, Estonia and Latvia had to fight both Baltic Germans... More
The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) ceded Ottoman territory in Arab Asia and North Africa to the Allies; in 1923, the Turkish War of Independence finally saw off the Allied occupation. Armenia was made independent and Kurdistan (Kars) declared autonomous. The Ankara Agreement replaced this treaty in 1921, when France ceded... More
Deterioration of the Soviet Union’s economy throughout the 1980s paved the way for a number of radical institutional changes under the presidency of Mikhail Gorbachev. In 1988, Gorbachev made the extent of Soviet ambitions for political change on a national and international scale clear to the world in a speech... More
The New York Central Railroad, taken over by Amtrak in 1971, serves most of the northeast and extends as far north as Montreal and Ottawa in Canada. Formed from the 1853 merger of ten railroads by Erastus Corning, an entrepreneur and Mayor of Albany, the railroad followed the path of... More
The Nickel Plate Railroad (the nickname came from the windfalls it generated for towns it passed through) was conceived as a means of breaking the monopoly of William H. Vanderbilt and Jay Gould over the east-west rail routes and their high freight charges. To eliminate the competition, Vanderbilt bought the... More
The New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad’s (NH) predecessor was the Hartford and New Haven Railroad (H&NH), which operated from 1844–72. The H&HN offered services in New England from New Haven, Connecticut, to Springfield, Massachusetts. The NH was formed after merging the H&NH with the New York and New... More
The new French Chief of Staff, Robert Nivelle, had strong-armed through an audacious plan to ‘end the war in two days’ over the objections of the British Chief of Staff, General Haig and the French War Minister. On 16 April 1917 French divisions mounted a simultaneous assault on a 50-mile... More