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The Mughal Empire under Akbar 1605
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The Mughal Empire under Akbar 1605
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Abu’l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar, known as Akbar or sometimes Akbar the Great, was the third Mughal emperor. In 1556, following the death of his father in an accident Akbar came to the throne under a regent, Bairan Khan, a loyal mentor to the young emperor and a trusted ally, who... More
The Muslim Near East 1127–1174
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The Muslim Near East 1127–1174
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Nur al-Din (born c. 1127) inherited Aleppo from Zengi, his father, in 1146. He was determined to unite the region’s Muslims against the Christian occupiers in Palestine and Syria. With the support of his brother, who had inherited Mosul, and the Abbasids in Baghdad, Nur al-Din massacred the Edessan Christians... More
The Muslim Near East 1127–74
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The Muslim Near East 1127–74
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By the 1120s, most of the Seljuk Empire had disintegrated, with ambitious local warlords vying for dominance. In a highly competitive field, the most ruthless was Zangi, who became atabeg (governor) of Mosul. From 1127, he attacked or double-crossed all local opposition to carve out a powerful fiefdom, before being... More
The Mycenaean Kingdom, c. 1300 BCE
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The Mycenaean Kingdom, c. 1300 BCE
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This Bronze Age civilization, clearly influenced by the earlier Minoan civilization on Crete (2000–1450 BCE) flourished in Peloponnese from the 17th to 12th centuries BCE, spreading its influence to mainland Greece, the eastern Aegean and Crete. Large palace complexes, generally built around a rectangular central hall or megaron, dominated the... More
The Napoleonic Empire c. 1809
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The Napoleonic Empire c. 1809
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Napoleon Bonaparte, French military commander, was at the apex of his power in 1809 after successful campaigns against various European coalitions. Napoleon or members of his family ruled much of Europe. France’s expansion into an imperial power began in 1796 when General Napoleon’s Italian Campaigns expelled the Austrian Habsburgs from... More
The Near East 600 BCE
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The Near East 600 BCE
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The Medes, or Medians, were a group of early Iranian tribes who united under King Cyaxares (624–585 BCE) and formed an alliance with the Babylonians under King Nabopolassar against the Neo-Assyrians, who at the time ruled most of the Near East. Assyrian fragmentation led to their loss of the cities... More
The Near East in the Amarna Letters c. 1345–1330 BCE
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The Near East in the Amarna Letters c. 1345–1330 BCE
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The Amarna letters were clay tablets excavated from El-Amara, Pharaoh Akhenaten’s city. Spanning over 30 years and written in Akkadian, the lingua franca of the Far East, they are the correspondence between the Egyptian administration and its representatives in the occupied territories. These letters provide an abundance of information about... More
The Nestorian Church 50-850 CE
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The Nestorian Church 50-850 CE
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Under intense political pressure from the Sasanian Empire, the Persian church declared its independence from the Roman Church in 424 CE. Four years later Nestorius was appointed patriarch of Constantinople and soon provoked a doctrinal storm by challenging the established church position that Mary was a theotokos (God-bearer), declaring that... More
The Netherlands 1574–89
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The Netherlands 1574–89
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From 1572, Spanish armies, initially under the Duke of Alba, conducted a ruthless suppression of Dutch rebels. The revolt had been provoked by autocratic rule, high taxation and the suppression of the Protestant religion. In 1576, in the Pacification of Ghent, the rebels, previously divided, agreed a common front. However,... More
The Netherlands 1579–1621
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The Netherlands 1579–1621
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In 1555, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V abdicated and King Phillip II of Spain acquired the German and Spanish empires, including the Low Countries. Catholic rebellion in the Netherlands led to the persecution and execution of Protestants under the Duke of Alba and his Council of Troubles (also known... More
The Netherlands 1590–1607
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The Netherlands 1590–1607
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In 1587, Maurice of Nassau (son of William of Orange) was made Captain General of the Dutch rebel army in the Spanish Netherlands. With its navy shattered by the destruction of the Armada, an enfeebled, and soon bankrupt, Spain suffered reverse after reverse at Maurice’s hands, its unpaid troops frequently... More
The Netherlands 1609–48
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The Netherlands 1609–48
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From 1609, a truce subsisted for twelve years between the Spanish and Dutch. However, war would eventually reignite because neither side would commit to religious tolerance in the areas they controlled, and because of growing conflict between their respective colonial and commercial interests. In 1621, hostilities resumed; a Spanish attack... More