The new kingdom of Holland replaced the Batavian Republic, which was a client state of revolutionary France, founded after the conquest of the Netherlands in 1795. The Republic governed itself, instituting political changes and improvements. When Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor of the French in May 1804, he was concerned about... More
The golden age of al-Andalus peaked during the late 10th century, when al-Mansur, an advisor at the Umayyad court, became the regent and effective ruler of al-Andalus. His dominance had, however, effectively eroded the perceived power of the emir and on his death in 1002 the rulers of a mosaic... More
In the latter half of the 11th century the warring Islamic states of Iberia (the taifas) became increasingly reliant on the Almoravids of North Africa, a Berber dynasty with a strong military tradition and strict adherence to Islam, to resist the advance of the Christian kingdoms from the north. In... More
The Christian kingdoms of Iberia vied with each other for dominance, and occasionally formed alliances. By the beginning of the 15th century four kingdoms were dominant: Castile (permanently united with Léon from 1230), Aragon, Navarre and Portugal. The decisive Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 was a turning... More
In 910 much of the Iberian peninsula was governed by Muslims from the Maghreb (Moors) and was known as al-Andalus. The Muslim occupation of parts of the Iberia peninsula dates to the Umayyad victory over the Visigoths in 711. Al-Andalus was ruled by the emirs of Cordova, whose control over... More
Eratosthenes was born in Cyrene (present-day Libya) under Ptolemaic rule in c. 276 BCE. He became a renowned polymath, devising a mathematical sieve for determining prime numbers, and deducing with reasonable accuracy the circumference of the earth through latitudinal differences in shadow-length at noon. His mathematical bent influenced his Geography,... More
Europeans had travelled overland as far as China in search of wealth and trade. The 13th-century journey of the Venetian Marco Polo, who had travelled through along the ancient Silk Road, through Central Asia to China, where he had spent many years at the court of the Mongol Emperor Kublai... More
The voyages of Christopher Columbus, who stumbled on the coast of America in 1492 when he was sailing westward to seek a passage to Asia on behalf of the Spanish court, stimulated the Portuguese to redouble their efforts to navigate around the Cape of Good Hope to Asia. In 1498... More
The European exploration of the Atlantic, and the huge appetite for essential manpower for the economic exploitation of new colonies in the Americas, led to the emergence of the African slave trade in the 17th century. European slavers founded slaving colonies on the African coast, but did not penetrate far... More
The Korean War, 25 June 1950–27 July 1953, was the first major jet age conflict. The Korean People’s Air Force (KPAF) comprised about 150 aircraft of Soviet Russian design, propeller-driven and dating from the end of World War II. The UN were able to deploy a modern force of around... More
On 15 August 1945, at the end of World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States divided Korea into two Occupation Zones along the 38th parallel. The north was administered by the Soviet Union, the south by the United States; by 1948 the north had become the Democratic... More
General MacArthur, Commander in Chief of UN Forces, believed that the Chinese government’s threat to involve itself in the war in Korea was a bluff, but by 19 October 1950 some Chinese units were already in Korea. After UN forces consolidated their positions MacArthur ordered an advance along the front.... More