The Sack of Rome in 1527 by mutinous troops of the Holy Roman Empire forced the pope to reach an accommodation with the Spanish Habsburgs. Emperor Charles V faced Europe-wide criticism for his army’s actions and left the papal states intact and guaranteed Medici rule over Florence. The papal states... More
In 1477 the Holy Roman Empire, a multi-ethnic jigsaw of principalities, duchies, counties, Free Imperial Cities and other domains within central Europe, was under the rule of the Habsburg Emperor Frederick III, and was poised on the brink of a conflict with Hungary. Frederick III had proved a weak but... More
When in 1792 revolutionary France declared war on Habsburg Austria, the Holy Roman Empire’s days were numbered. Habsburg Austria’s emperor, Joseph II, was also the Holy Roman emperor. Prussia allied itself to Austria and a coalition of Britain, Spain, Portugal, Sardinia, Naples and Sicily. Although France was invaded on several... More
By 1600, the once great Holy Roman Empire had diminished into a medley of separate Germanic states presided over by many secular and ecclesiastical princes, some of whom were Lutheran reformists. Although allegiance was paid to the Catholic Habsburg emperor, heading a powerful dynasty that had occupied the Holy Roman... More
It is generally accepted that the semi-legendary poems, the Odyssey and the Iliad, were composed around the late 8th or early 7th century BCE, either by a single poet or by many contributors. The Iliad is a summary in verse of the long war between Troy and the Greeks. It... More
The Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia could already claim a lineage of over a thousand years by the 15th century: it sent envoys to Henry IV of England and established diplomatic relations with Portugal. However, as the century progressed it was increasingly threatened by Islamic neighbours – the Funj Sultanate to... More
England and France were rarely far from the brink of conflict, and the ‘confiscation’ of Aquitaine by the French king, Philip IV, was more than enough for King Edward III of England. He claimed the French throne, and devastated rural France with massed cavalry raids: ‘chevauchées’. French attempts to confront... More
Edward III of England held a claim to the French throne in opposition to Philip VI, and both the Plantagenets and House of Valois laid claim to the duchy of Aquitaine. In 1337, when Philip confiscated the duchy of Aquitaine from Edward, the English king raised funds for a military... More
In the early 1400s, reforming Bohemian priest, Jan Hus, denounced corruption in the Catholic Church and the institution of the papacy. The Council of Constance was convened, supposedly to arbitrate, but Hus was seized there and burned as a heretic. Open revolt now broke out amongst his followers, the Hussites,... More
The Immelmann manoeuvre was first used in World War I aerial combat by German flying ace, Max Immelmann. This tactic was initially performed using Fokker Eindekkers, monoplane fighter aircraft. After attacking an aircraft, the attacker quickly reclimbed past the enemy aircraft and, on the verge of a stall, applied full... More
Since 1772, the British East India Company (a trading company) had hegemony over the Indian subcontinent and represented the British government. Over the years the Company had become increasingly oppressive and expansionist, alienating many Indians. Tensions finally erupted on 10 May 1857 amongst Indian sepoys who revolted against British command... More
Throughout the 1980s, Israel had increased the number of settlers in the Palestinian territories with the aim of gradual annexation, whilst growing Palestinian unemployment led to increased nationalist activity. On 8 December 1987 a number of Palestinians were killed on the northern border of the Gaza Strip in a road... More