W.B. Yeats described Ireland in the 1890s as a nation ‘now plastic’ like ‘molten wax’ ready to be shaped and transformed. But those who sought to mould that destiny were contentious and divided. The Home Rule movement had been riven by the fall from grace of its charismatic champion, Charles... More
Since medieval times, London has expanded from a walled city. The separate town of Westminster became significant with the building of Westminster Hall and Westminster Abbey, an area that was home to the royal court and later parliament. The River Thames was a critical gateway for wool and agricultural exports,... More
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) came into being in April 1949, when a treaty was signed by ten western European countries from the continent’s western seaboard, from Portugal in the south to Iceland in the north, plus Canada, and, critically, the United States. The Treaty afforded a collective security... More
The Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca occurs during the last month of the Islamic calendar and, as one of the five pillars of Islam, is a journey every Muslim should make at least once during their lifetime. With the advent of modern technologies, particularly cheap air travel, the number of foreign... More
The precursor to the development of universities in Europe was the reform programme of Pope Gregory VII (1073–85), whose centralization of papal power and expansion of canon law led to a drive for the professionalization of the clergy. His 1079 papal decree regulated the formation of cathedral schools, some of... More
By 1990, the Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein was ruinously in debt owing to his long war with Iran. Most of this debt was owed to Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, who ignored Saddam’s requests for commutation. Moreover, Iraq’s oil revenues were depressed by Kuwaiti/Saudi overproduction; together with some confected territorial claims... More
From the middle of February, the US-led coalition subjected Iraqi positions and facilities to massive bombardment. In addition, feint assaults were made, coupled with naval shelling from the Persian Gulf, to give the impression the main attack would come from the south. Instead, early on the 24th, the coalition launched... More
The final day of conflict in the Gulf War was marked by the headlong retreat of Iraqi troops from their remaining positions in Kuwait, their flight obscured by the fumes of hundreds of burning oil wells. The ragged cavalcade of retreating troops was remorselessly bombed by the coalition, well into... More
The Gulf, Mobile and Ohio railroad, a Class 1 railroad, began life in February and October 1848 when it was chartered by the states of Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Tennessee. It was originally built to connect coastal Alabama at Mobile to southern Illinois and it was only in 1938 that,... More
When James Stuart succeeded the childless Elizabeth I in 1603, Catholic hopes of reclaiming the throne were dashed. James had heirs, promising a continuing Protestant dynasty, and the disappointment provoked a rash of Catholic conspiracies, despite the new king’s relative tolerance towards their faith. Understandably, James’s initial tolerance dissipated, and... More
Various estimates extrapolated from historical sources would suggest that the origins of the Gupta Empire date back to around 240 CE. Sri Gupta began the line of rulers of the Gupta Empire as a regional king in northeastern India. The social background of the Gupta Dynasty appears to have been... More
The Empire of Habsburg Spain was, by 1618, a magnificent edifice in desperate need of wholesale structural repair. The king, Philip III, was indolent, leaving affairs of state to his favourite, the Duke of Lerma. Notoriously corrupt, Lerma bankrupted the economy through extravagance, debasement of the coinage, and expulsion of... More