France faced impending famine as summer 1794 approached after the harvest had failed, and with its ports under British blockade. A convoy crossing the Atlantic with grain from the United States promised potential salvation. A British fleet under Admiral Howe was despatched to intercept the convoy, and a French fleet... More
The Golan Heights presented the Israelis with a similar challenge to that facing the Italians along the Isonzo River in World War I: a well-entrenched enemy commanding high ground, on fractured karstic terrain. The wisdom of attacking was questionable; enemy dispositions would not favour air superiority and effective tank deployment,... More
Gold was discovered near Coloma in the Sierra Nevada in June 1848, days before Mexico ceded California to the USA. As the news spread, the effect was electrifying. The first wave of the Gold Rush was seaborne, from Hawaii, China and Latin America, and overland from adjoining Oregon Territory. Within... More
Following the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, the British Expeditionary Forces (BEF), under Lord Gort, assembled along the France-Belgium border to the left of the French First Army. The focus for the British was to fortify their 45-mile (72-km) stretch of this French northeastern front and protect the... More
Drawn on sheepskin, the Gough Map was donated to the Bodleian library in 1809 by the antiquarian, Richard Gough. It dates to the late 14th century (it depicts a wall around Coventry which was not constructed until 1355), and departs from the conventions of contemporary maps produced by clergy, typically... More
The Great Irish famine resulted in over a million deaths, from diseases such as cholera and dysentery, as well as starvation. Its cause, potato blight, had originated in America and spread widely throughout Europe, but nowhere were its effects as catastrophic as in Ireland. Through absent landowners and grasping agents,... More
After the end of the post-Civil War Reconstruction Period (1865–77), the ‘Bourbon Democrats’ monopolized political power in the South, orchestrating a systematic exclusion of blacks from the political process. This would be cemented by the introduction of ‘Jim Crow Laws’ of racial segregation. The black population in the South was... More
The Great Mosque of Kilwa in Tanzania is said to be one of the earliest of its kind in East Africa. Although it is now in ruins, it was built when Kilwa Kisiwani (‘isle of the fish’), was once a flourishing empire. The mosque was constructed in at least two... More
The Great Northern (GN) was a major American railroad that operated from St Paul, Minnesota, to Seattle, Washington from 1857–1970. The only privately funded transcontinental route in the US and the most northerly, it was developed from the Saint Paul & Pacific Railroad. It was built incrementally, using land purchased... More
The Swedish Empire was dominant in northern Europe around the turn of the 18th century. Peter the Great was seeking to extend Russia’s influence and needed access to Baltic ports to expand trade. Russia formed an alliance with Denmark-Norway and Saxony-Poland and began a combined attack against Sweden in February... More
The Eastern and Western churches had become increasingly estranged from the 5h century onwards. Doctrinal divisions were reflected in growing cultural divisions. In the Byzantine church the head of state was also head of the church – irreconcilable with the independence (at least in aspiration) of the papacy. Pope Leo... More
As the early Greek states made the transition from aristocracy to democracy, a number of states were ruled by tyrants – individuals who seized and wielded power. However, the Greek word for tyrant simply means ‘sole ruler’; often the tyrants arose as people’s champions, who stood up for their rights... More