Elbert Gary had a meteoric second career. An attorney, and for a while, a judge, until his mid-fifties, he then crossed to the steel industry. Within three years he was the first chairman of the world’s first billion-dollar corporation, US Steel, which was created out of three separate companies. Gary... More
After the disastrous failure of Austria-Hungary’s Galician campaign in the autumn of 1915, the Austrian fortress of Przemysl was left isolated and defiant as the Russians occupied all the surrounding territory in the wake of the Austro-Hungarian retreat. From 9 November–22 March Russian forces trapped 130,000 Habsburg troops. By 19... More
Since the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, the papacy had retained substantial landholdings through the patrimony of St Peter, but continued to recognize the temporal authority of the eastern emperor in Constantinople. In the early 8th century, a rift developed over doctrinal differences and increasing imperial... More
From the moment it sailed, the Fourth Crusade was dominated by the commercial and political imperatives of the supplier of their fleet, the Doge of Venice. With the crusaders unable to pay, the Doge threatened to intern them in the harbor unless they subdued Venice’s trading competitors in the Adriatic,... More
Having expanded his realm in the west, in 500 The Frankish King Clovis I led an army southwards to Dijon to confront the Burgundian armies led by Roman proxy Gundobad, who was forced to flee. Burgundy was not annexed, but was obliged to pay tribute to the Franks. Then, from... More
The French and Indian Wars were the colonial North American theatre of the Seven Years’ War (1756–63), which became the first global war. The conflict had arisen from issues left unresolved by the War of the Austrian succession 1740–48. The war broke out in Europe, with coalitions developing around Britain,... More
Historians refer to Napoleon’s empire as ‘the First French Empire’, despite France having colonial possessions from the 17th century onwards. At its peak in 1811, much of western Europe was ruled directly by Napoleon or by a Bonaparte family member. Several of Napoleon’s brothers and sisters were appointed as royalty... More
The French East India Company, Compagnie Francaise pour le Commerce des Indes Orientales, was founded in 1664 out of three earlier French trading companies created to operate in the orient. The sphere of operations ran from the Cape of Good Hope to the Straits of Magellan and the Company was... More
Initially, the European powers seemed content to spectate, with a mixture of horror and schadenfreude, as France succumbed to revolution. The seizure (and later execution) of the French king Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette transformed perceptions, spurred on by agitation from influential emigrés: this was now an existential threat to... More
After Napoleon’s escape from exile on the island of Elba and return to power in March 1815 the Seventh Coalition was immediately formed by states that opposed his return. There were two Coalition armies already formed and stationed on France’s northern border, the Anglo-allied and Prussian. With Austrian and Russian... More
A ceasefire was declared between the Allies and Germany on 11 November 1918 (Armistice Day), becoming effective at 11.00. On the final day of World War 1, 10,000 western front soldiers were killed, wounded or declared missing. Poor communication along the front line meant many units did not receive information... More
The American frontier began with the thirteen original colonies. By 1800 the frontier had pushed westwards towards the Appalachian Mountains and into the Ohio Territories, Kentucky, Tennessee, the Mississippi Territory and Indiana Territory. Land was sold to new settlers to help pay off the national debt. Many became farmers and... More