Harsha (c. 590–647 CE), a member of the Vardhana dynasty, was the son of Prabhakar, who defeated the Alchon Huna invaders, also known as the White Huns, and younger brother of Rajyavardhana, king of Thaneswar. After the defeat of the Huna invaders and the final collapse of the Gupta Empire... More
Knud the Great was the youngest son of the Danish king, Sweyn Forkbeard, who died during an invasion of England in 1014. Sweyn’s oldest son Harald became king of Denmark and Knud returned to England with an invasion fleet in the summer of 1015, where he found a divided nation,... More
The empire of Nicaea began expanding its territory in 1225 under the leadership of John III Doukas Vatatzes. The first territories he acquired were ceded from the rival Latin Empire, immediately to the north, following an unsuccessful coup against him, for which the Latin Empire had provided support. John III... More
Kublai Khan emerged triumphant from the civil war which attended his accession, but only at the expense of the Mongol Empire’s fracture, with Kublai holding at best nominal sway over the three western khanates. But China was the prize and by 1279, he completed its conquest with the elimination of... More
The Mongol Kublai Khan was a Buddhist and Sinophile, moving his capital from Qara-qorum in Mongolia to Khanbalik in China (1271) and thus establishing the Yuan dynasty. His summer palace (the ‘stately pleasure dome’ of Coleridge’s Xanadu) was at nearby Sheng-tu. Kublai moved quickly to establish his dominion over the... More
The Holy Roman Empire was formed in 800 as a medley of independent Christian kingdoms under one ‘Holy Roman’ emperor. The empire on the eve of the French Revolution 1789 was quiescent after spending the first half of the century embroiled in conflicts with several European countries, including Spain, Poland... More
The Muslim conquest of the North African Mediterranean coastline was completed in the early 8th century: the territory divided into separate caliphates, with shifting borders and spheres of influence. To their south, Ghana, Mali, then Songhay would successively dominate the western Sahara, growing rich on the trade of gold, salt... More
The carve-up of the territories of the defunct Austro-Hungarian Empire was not an orderly process. In the south, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (KSCS) was proclaimed but remained in dispute with Italy until the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920. In February 1919, the Allied council, then negotiating the... More
The Fourth Crusade from 1202–04 resulted in the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire and the establishment of a number of so called Crusader States. During this period, which became known as the Francocracy, the various Latin armies from western Europe set up a number of small competing states. These were... More
The Armistice of Mudros, marking the Ottoman Empire’s exit from World War I, was concluded between the British and Ottoman representatives on 30 October 1918. At the time, Ottoman forces were advancing in the Caucasus, but the British had taken Damascus and the Ottomans’ Bulgarian ally had sued for peace.... More
Although piecemeal and freebooting, the Norman subjugation of Ireland developed a form of routine. To protect their salient of conquest, the Normans built basic ringwork, or motte and bailey castles. Once secure, the lords built imposing stone castles, symbols of their dominance, and centres of residence, administration and entertainment. Finally,... More
Anglo-Norman power in Ireland was consolidated by the Great Charter (1217), derived from Magna Carta, and reached its zenith in the elective Parliament of 1297. Formed originally of the Norman nobility, knights and clergy, town burghers were added in 1299. Thereafter Scots invasion, famines, and the ravages of the Black... More