When war was declared on 17 August 1914, the configuration of the eastern front presented Russia with a mixture of opportunity and risk. Their Polish dominions formed a huge salient into the territory of the Central Powers, which Russia used as a springboard for an immediate strike against East Prussia... More
Between August–December 1914, the overall picture on the eastern front displayed a dynamic equilibrium. In the north, German victories at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes had the Russians in retreat but, in the south, the Russians had achieved equally decisive victories over General Conrad’s Austro-Hungarian army in the Battle of... More
From the outset, the eastern front was a very different theatre of war to the western front, vastly more extended, traversing plains and mountain ranges, much of it sparsely populated with poor communications and transport. The Germans, wedded to the Schlieffen Plan, hoped their strong eastern defences and Austrian allies... More
The first 18 months of the war ruthlessly exposed the military deficiencies of both Russia and Austria-Hungary. Russia had initiated the war with bravado, two armies immediately invading East Prussia, but a brilliant German counteroffensive saw both armies routed at a cost of some 200,000 casualties. However, the Austro-Hungarian attempt... More
For most of the 50 years after the Persian wars, Athens enjoyed its ‘golden age’. In 461 BCE, the statesman and orator, Pericles, already an important figure in Athens, emerged as leader of Athens’ democratic party. He was also elected ‘leading general’ after establishing Athenian colonies on the Black Sea... More
Upon the death, without surviving issue, of Amenhotep, the Egyptian throne passed in 1506 BCE to a senior military commander Thutmose I, the third pharaoh of the 18th dynasty. He almost at once faced a rebellion in Nubia, which he crushed, personally killing the rebel leader. He followed this with... More
In 10th-century Europe, the Hungarian tribes marauded with near impunity over a vast territory. Their new homeland in the Carpathian Basin was secured by annihilating the East Franks at Pressburg (907). From this base, they raided as far as Catalonia in northern Spain (942), Otranto (947) and the outskirts of... More
The ‘Walk to Canossa’ (1077) epitomized a reassertion of papal authority over the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Henry IV trekked through the Alps in midwinter to seek absolution for his excommunication from Pope Gregory VII. In the previous century, the emperors had been very much in the ascendant, frequently deposing... More
Like Charlemagne, Otto the Great was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in middle age, after serving a long and turbulent military apprenticeship. On becoming king of Germany (936), he was quickly embroiled in a ducal rebellion, and forced to crush a French attempt to seize Lotharingia. He waged repeated camapigns to... More
The reign of Justinian I saw a revival of the Byzantine Empire as he attempted to restore it to its former glory. Disputes with the Persian Sassanid Empire proved a constant threat to the security of the Byzantine frontier. Justinian signed a peace treaty with Sassanid King Khosrau I in... More
In 336 BCE, Philip II’s Macedonia had risen to control the whole of the Greek world. His son and successor Alexandra the Great took an army to the Greek and Thracian city-states to secure their allegiance. Thebes resisted and Alexander destroyed the city to warn against rebellion; in Thrace, Alexander’s... More
After his father had created a Babylonian power base in central Mesopotamia by annexing Borsippa, Kish and Sippar, Hammurabi began his reign peaceably, establishing his famous legal code and consolidating his defences. After the Elamites invaded Eshnunna, Hammurabi allied with Larsa to annex their kingdom. Larsa’s contribution to the war... More