By 1797 the First French Republic, which had been established as a result of the French Revolution in 1789, had begun its territorial expansion into neighbouring states. Many other states within Europe, including Spain, Britain, the Dutch Republic and the Habsburg Monarchy had come together under the First Coalition from... More
The site of Troy, near the Dardanelles Straits in northwestern Turkey, was first extensively excavated by Heinrich von Schliemann (1870–90). He was guided by earlier speculation that it might house the remains of the famous city of antiquity laid siege to by the Mycenaean Greeks, and immortalized by Homer. The... More
The Coptic Orthodox church traced its foundation to the apostle Mark, who is traditionally held to have brought Christianity to Egypt in the first century CE. The Copts, who were Miaphysites (holding that Jesus is fully divine and fully human), split from the broader Christian community in 451. The Coptic... More
The term ‘Cotton Belt’ refers to the region in the southern US where, from 1801–60, cotton became the predominant cash crop. Prior to the invention of the cotton gin (1794), which abnegated the need for manual separation of cotton fibres from the seed, cotton growth was confined to the lower... More
Following the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Turks (1821–32), Greece was recognized as an independent nation in 1832. Prince Otto of Bavaria was made king of Greece in 1833, ruling as an absolute monarch until 1843 when, in the face of armed insurrection, he created a constitution. To... More
Following the death of King Charles IV of France 1328 and the crowning of Philip VI in his place, the English king, Edward III, launched the Hundred Years’ War. In 1346 he crossed the channel with 15,000 men to claim his succession to the French throne. Edward transported his army... More
During the Cretaceous period, sea levels were higher than at any other time in terrestrial history, flooding the continental margins and creating vast, warm shallow seas teeming with marine life. Their skeletal remains became the signature deposits of chalk and marine limestone that characterize the Cretaceous, and from which its... More
Crimea has always been something of an anomaly: at the time of the formation of the Soviet Union, its majority population was Tatar. Subsequent Russian immigration meant that, by 2001, over 60 per cent of the population claimed Russian ethnicity, and 77 per cent Russian as their native language. By... More
The Crimean War saw the combined forces of Britain, France and the Ottoman Empire engage the Russian Empire in its Black Sea territories around the Crimean peninsula. The background to the hostilities revolved around the threat of Russian expansion southwards into the territories of the weakening Ottoman Empire, which would... More
German naval operations were fledgling at the outbreak of World War I: ‘homeless waifs’ according to their Ambassador to China until Tsingtao was purchased as a base (1898). Admiral von Spee had six warships, but the allied navies in the region, particularly those of Japan and Australia, were clearly superior.... More
While most of the naval warfare in World War I occurred in the North Sea, there were engagements in the Pacific theatre. At the beginning of August 1914, the German East India Squadron, under Admiral von Spee, exited the Pacific theatre from their base at Tsingtao and headed towards Germany.... More
The Cathars presented perhaps the most radical threat to Christian orthodoxy in the Middle Ages, believing that there were two Gods, the God of the spiritual world and the God of the material world in which the soul was imprisoned. To free their souls the Cathars renounced the things of... More