In the competitive and turbulent environment of archaic Greece, the establishment of colonies gave the domestic city-states an edge over their rivals. This rivalry was also supra-national: the Etruscans and Phoenicians were also very active seafaring traders and colonizers in this period. In the 8th century BCE, ‘homeland’ Greece, to... More
British wool was prized for its quality throughout Europe, providing the raw material of choice for Flemish weavers and inspiring a flourishing medieval export trade. Edward III’s formation of the Merchants of the Staple trade monopoly to finance the Hundred Years’ War inadvertently produced a domestic cloth industry by rendering... More
At the beginning of the Georgian period, the English cloth industry was still overwhelmingly small in scale, either cottage-based or in small mills employing up to 30 weavers. There were pronounced regional specialisms in the products produced, as noted enthusiastically by the author and essayist Daniel Defoe in his travelogues.... More
Mycenaean civilization reached a peak in about 1300 BCE, but just a century later the palaces were abandoned and villages were burned. Traditional accounts theorized that the Mycenaean centres were destroyed by invading Dorian invaders, but archaeological evidence now seems to point to a range of factors, including: drought, harvest... More
The first successful English colonization of America began with the settlement at Jamestown (so named after King James I) in the region christened ‘Virginia’ by Elizabeth I. The settlers, who searched in vain for gold, initially faced great hardships of famine, disease and conflict with the native tribes. Their breakthrough... More
The Combat Box was a tactical formation used by the bombers US 8th and 15th Air Force, which concentrated the power of the bombers’ guns and also ensured they landed on target. Even when the bombers were accompanied by fighter escorts, which happened increasingly from 1944 onwards, the combat box... More
The premise of the Confederate campaign in Kentucky appeared to be sound; it was reasoned that a joint invasion of pro-secession Kentucky by Generals Bragg and Kirby Smith would bring Kentuckians flooding to the Confederate cause. Rapid progress was made: Smith won a skirmish at Richmond, Bragg seized Munfordville. Buell’s... More
From 2014 there was a long stalemate in Ukraine, with intermittent conflict along the front-line separating Russian- and Ukrainian-controlled regions in the southeast. On 21 April 2019, Voldomyr Zelensky was elected president in the second round of the presidential election. The drift toward the west continued with an intent to... More
After a disputed succession, Athelstan first sought to extend his influence circumspectly, purchasing Amounderness from Norse settlers, and allying himself by marriage with Sihtric, the Danish king of York. However, Sihtric died in 927, and Athelstan seized the opportunity to invade, occupying the kingdom of Northumbria. The kings of Scotland... More
The Schlieffen Plan specified passage through Belgium, a neutral country. Rather implausibly, Count von Schlieffen had contended that Belgian neutrality might be preserved if they simply allowed the German armies free passage. In the event, the Germans claimed that French officers had been secretly passing through Belgium to Germany, so... More
In October 1518 Hernán Cortés led an expedition, funded by the governor of the Spanish colony on Cuba, Diego Velázquez, along the coast of Mexico in search of trade prospects. On his journey west, Cortés made contact with Gerónimo de Aguilar who had been living amongst the Mayans of the... More
Tamerlane (Timur) was a Turko-Mongol conqueror who exploited the vacuum created by the disintegration of the Mongol Empire. A vizier in the Chagatai Khanate, he later claimed to be a direct descendant of Genghis Khan, enabling him to become the ‘legitimate’ ruler of a new Mongol dynasty. By 1400, his... More