At the battle of Allia (390 BCE), the Roman army was destroyed by a confederacy of Celtic tribes, led by the Senones under Brennus. The Celts went on to lay waste to Rome, before being routed by the exiled Roman general Camillus. The germ of future greatness can be seen... More
In the 4th century BCE, the Celts moved out of their German heartland south into Italy and east into the Danube basin. The eastern advance was spearheaded by the Boii and Volcae confederacies, who scented richer pickings in the southern Balkans. By the century’s end, the Illyrians, Paionians and Triballi... More
The heartland of the Celtic Hallstatt culture was located around the Upper Danube; the first Celtic migrations were westward. Much of Gaul was occupied during the 6th century BCE, with rapid onward progress into the British Isles and Iberia. At these extremes, the regions of Celtic settlement became spatially isolated... More
The Celts, named Keltoi (barbarians) by the Greeks, were a cultural group that occupied much of Europe north of the Alps. The proto-Celtic Urnfield Culture was located in central Europe until the 8th century BCE, when the first recognizably Celtic Hallstatt culture began to disseminate from a heartland in southern... More
Chechnya, which became part of the Russian Empire in 1859, has a lengthy history of conflict and persecution, most notably under Stalin’s rule post-World War II. With the fall of the Soviet Union minority regions within Russia were offered varying degrees of autonomy; however, Chechnya rejected proposals and pursued full... More
The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway, (C&O) was the result of the merger of several Virginian railroads. Its major shareholder, Collis Potter Huntington, had already invested in the Central Pacific Railroad and wanted an eastern connection to create a transcontinental railroad. Construction began in 1869–73, with new tracks laid in coal-rich... More
The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad (CB&Q) is a transcontinental line, which has as its slogan, ‘Everywhere West’. It came into existence in 1856 when the Aurora Branch Railroad became the CB&Q. It went from a state railroad to one that included Burlington, Iowa, and Quincy, Illinois. This gave it... More
Years of centralized control and international isolation had resulted in a moribund and hugely inefficient Chinese economy, but when in 1979 the ‘sleeping giant’ was awoken by free-market reforms and foreign investment and trade, it began to achieve astonishing rates of growth. Farmers were allowed to sell produce in a... More
The one significant Spanish territory in Asia was the Philippines, first claimed for Spain by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 and named for a Spanish king. The first Catholic mass was conducted on the island of Limasawa on Easter Sunday, 1521. Within a month the king and queen of Cebu had... More
Following the end of the Roman Empire the ‘patrimony of Saint Peter’ consisted of a jumble of far-flung estates bequeathed to the papacy by wealthy Romans in the twilight of the Empire. However, the Byzantine Emperor had confiscated papal estates in southern Italy, Sicily and Illyricum during the great Iconoclastic... More
In his memoir, the Roman Emperor Augustus claimed ‘I found a city made of sun-dried brick, I left her clothed in marble’. Above all, Augustus brought the gift of peace, after the protracted civil war that saw his emergence. In his long reign (31 BCE–14 CE) he went on to... More
During this period, the Roman Empire became a tetrarchy (ruled by four emperors), and nearly collapsed under the pressure of internal disputes, economic depression, plague and revolts. Rome, the capital of the empire, became increasingly vulnerable to attacks from Germanic tribes. In 271–275 CE, Emperor Aurelian built a defensive city... More