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The Blitz September 1940–May 1941
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The Blitz September 1940–May 1941
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The Blitz, German for ‘lightning’, was a strategic bombing campaign by the Nazis against London and other British cities, including Plymouth, Liverpool, Coventry, Glasgow and Belfast. Used as retaliation for British bombing raids on Berlin, the Luftwaffe dropped bombs day and night, claiming many lives and destroying national landmarks. Use... More
The Bolshevik Seizure of Power November 1917–February 1918
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The Bolshevik Seizure of Power November 1917–February 1918
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When Trotsky consigned the Bolsheviks’ rivals in Petrograd to ‘the dustbin of history’, he seemed ridiculously premature. Russia was awash with rival factions vying for power, most of which seemed to have stronger prospects of ultimate success than Lenin’s band of revolutionaries. But the Bolsheviks had some crucial advantages. To... More
The Bombing of England 1914–17
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The Bombing of England 1914–17
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On 21 December 1914 two sea-planes bombed Dover, causing no injuries. This was the first German air raid and targeted southeastern ports. On 19 January 1915, the Zeppelin raids began. Known as ‘baby killers’ these unwieldy hydrogen gas planes often missed their targets: the Guildford bombing killed a swan and... More
The Bombing of Paris 1914–17
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The Bombing of Paris 1914–17
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From the beginning of the 1914–18 conflict, central Paris was raided by German mono and biplanes. The first recorded air attack was on 13 October 1914 when two Tauben monoplanes dropped bombs in central Paris, causing little damage. Attacks escalated in 1915 when the Germans began using giant hydrogen powered,... More
The Border Lordships 1500–1600
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The Border Lordships 1500–1600
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The Scottish Marches were first introduced in the 13th century, in theory to stabilize a region notorious for its lawlessness, but with little noticeable effect. Frequent Anglo-Scottish conflict made farming unprofitable, spawning the Border Reivers (raiders) who subsisted on rustling and protection rackets. When war broke out, the Reivers acted... More
The Borders 1500–1600
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The Borders 1500–1600
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The Marches along the Scots/English borders were first formally defined in 1249, with the intention of creating a buffer zone between the perpetually warring kingdoms. In practice, it meant the clans either side of the border were able to raid with impunity, by alternating their allegiances. The modern word ‘blackmail’... More
The British Bombing of Europe 1939–41
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The British Bombing of Europe 1939–41
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At the beginning of the war, the British and German administrations alike were opposed to the bombing of civilian targets, instead restricting bombing runs to important military targets. As the war progressed and the war efforts of both sides increased to keep up with the demands of increasingly pervasive fighting... More
The British Empire 1850
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The British Empire 1850
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In 1852, British chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli, described the colonies as a ‘millstone around our necks’. The abolition of slavery in the West Indies and costly anti-slavery naval patrols off West Africa were draining the Empire’s economic resources. By 1848, Britain had gained direct and indirect control over... More
The British Empire in 1800
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The British Empire in 1800
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By 1800, the British had yet to achieve an empire on which ‘the sun never sets’, but British possessions were scattered across the globe. During the Napoleonic Wars, British naval supremacy enabled it to annex overseas territories from France, and by extension, its confederate, the Dutch. The strategic Cape of... More
The British Isles 1399–1488
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The British Isles 1399–1488
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The 15th century was book-ended by usurpations; at the outset Henry Bolingbroke from the House of Lancaster seized the throne from the effete and extravagant Richard II (leaving him to starve in prison) then vanquished the upstart Percys (and Owain Glyndwr) at Shrewsbury (1403) and Bramham Moor (1408). The cloud... More
The British Isles After the Ice Age c. 9000–6500 BCE
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The British Isles After the Ice Age c. 9000–6500 BCE
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Excavations from cave sites, such as Wookey Hole and Creswell Crags, show butchered deer bones and other signs of human activity, dating to c. 16,000 BP. This is thought to be a temporary reoccupation, after the human population deserted England and northeastern Ireland for warmer climates during the glacial period.... More
The British Isles c. 1250
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The British Isles c. 1250
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For most of the 13th century, weak kings in England saw their control over the bordering territories diminish. Although an anti-Norman Gaelic alliance was beaten at Down (1260) in northern Ireland, the independent Irish chieftains drove out their English-Norman overlords between 1261–74. By the 14th century the English residue huddled... More