To ensure security to the southeast before invading Russia, Germany needed to occupy both Yugoslavia and Greece. A coup d’etat in Yugoslavia, revoking the terms of the Tripartite Pact between the Axis powers that granted German passage through Yugoslavia to Greece, had unsettled Hitler. Additionally, in October 1940, there had... More
By 1360 the various Balkan states were becoming increasingly fragmented as internal rivalries and the rise of the Ottoman Empire began to take effect. With a victory near Gallipoli, the Ottomans acquired their first territory in Europe in 1354, whilst Wallachia returned to the Kingdom of Hungary as a vassal... More
The Balkans in the early 20th century was predisposed to conflicts. The piecemeal expulsion of ailing imperial power, the Ottomans, created new states – Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania – and incorporated both Greece and Romania into the geographical make-up of the region. But fired by liberation, the arbitrary boundaries brokered... More
General D’Esperey, commander of the Allied Army of the Orient was, in theory, well matched by the German-backed Bulgarian forces facing him along the Macedonian Front in September 1918. The Bulgarians had proved doughty opponents in the past but their Central Powers allies were now in a state of collapse... More
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 heralded the final dismantling of Ottoman rule in southern Europe. The Treaty of San Stefano confirmed the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, while Britain acquired Cyprus. However, Austria-Hungary and Britain were concerned about Russian dominance in the Balkans, and the subsequent Congress of Berlin... More
The Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 carved the independent kingdoms of Serbia, Bulgaria and Montenegro from the crumbling Ottoman Empire. These new kingdoms sought the liberation of their nationals still under Ottoman rule. In concert with Greece, they formed the Balkan League and declared war against the Ottomans in... More
The Baltic trading town Lübeck was the early driving force behind the Hanseatic League (founded 1356), which evolved from a series of local commercial alliances. The League’s extensive network of Baltic ports exported resin, amber, wax, iron, copper, flax and timber and imported textiles, wines and spices. ‘Kontors’, massive walled... More
From the 13th century, the merchant cities of the Hanseatic League monopolized the lucrative Baltic trade in grain, timber, amber and iron. League members Lübeck and Danzig were also the major ship-building centres of the time. In the second half of the 16th century, the trade grew as nation states... More
Russia had annexed the former Reval and Livonia from Sweden by the Treaty of Nystad (1721), and they were renamed Estland and Livland governates in 1795. As part of that treaty, the territories were accorded a considerable degree of autonomy; their own landtags, or representative assemblies, and their own legal... More
The Baltimore and Ohio railroad had as its slogan: ‘Linking 13 Great States with the Nation’. It was chartered in 1827 and is the oldest common carrier (carrying goods and people) railroad in the United States. In 1962, it was acquired by the Chesapeake and Ohio railroad, which merged it... More
In 1881 David Barrow, a plantation owner in mid-Georgia, wrote a newspaper article describing the changes in his propertys stewardship and organization post-Emancipation. Two decades earlier, his father had owned 94 slaves, housed in communal quarters overlooked by the house of the overseer. After the Civil War, the now freed... More
By the closing stages of the Battle of the Somme the Allies, albeit at monumental cost, learned some lessons in how to deploy supporting artillery fire effectively. On 15 September, the Canadian advance at Courcelette was supported by a ‘creeping barrage’ enabling the advancing troops to inch forward during phased... More