In early October 1918, with the war lost, the German chancellor made informal overtures for peace, citing US President Woodrow Wilson’s even-handed proposals from his ’14 Points’ speech in January as a template. After over four years of ruinous war, the Allies – Britain, France and Italy, who had joined... More
Palladius was sent by Pope Celestine as the first bishop ‘to the Irish believers in Christ’, so presumably the religion had some foothold prior to his arrival. St Patrick was hot on his heels, arriving from Britain the following year (432 CE), and was reinforced by the Saints Auxilius (Patrick’s... More
In c. 671 BCE the Iron Age Mesopotamian empire of Assyria was controlled by Ershaddon (r. 681–669) and dominated Assyria, Phoenicia, Babylonia, Elam and, after 671 BCE, Egypt. During his reign, Ershaddon suppressed a rebellion in Babylonia and countered attacks from the Cimmerians (horse-riding peoples from the southern shores of... More
In 824 BCE, the long reigning emperor, Shalmaneser III, died. His reign of 35 years consisted of constant military campaigns, with Shalmeneser III determined to expand his kingdom’s frontiers. Although he successfully conquered Babylonia and expanded his empire to the borders of the Taurus Mountains and received tribute from the... More
In 480 BCE the Achaemenid Persians had launched a second attempted invasion of Greece, but the Greeks, led by the Athenian and Spartan armies and navies, had fought them off in a series of land and sea battles (Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis, Mycale, Plataea), the last of which had seen the... More
General Sherman’s invading army In Georgia held a 2:1 numerical advantage over General Johnston’s Confederate defending forces, but rather than attempting to steamroller them, he elected for a game of cat and mouse, using Generals Thomas and Schofield (Armies of the Cumberland and Ohio) to engage the Rebels frontally, while... More
The Atlantic Coast Line (ACL) serves points south to Florida, north to Richmond, Virginia, and east to Birmingham, Alabama. It also travelled along the Atlantic coastline, linking the important ports of Norfolk, Wilmington and Charleston. Its highest concentration of lines was in Florida, where its numerous passenger trains contributed to... More
In May 1945 the Allies defeated Germany but the war in the Pacific theatre continued. Faced with the prospect of a ground invasion of Japan, which would cost many thousands of US lives, President Harry S Truman chose “prompt and utter destruction” and authorized the use of the atomic bomb.... More
The Austrian Empire was created in 1804 by the Habsburg ruler Francis I, who correctly foresaw that Napoleon’s hoovering up of the German princedoms and principalities would fatally undermine the Holy Roman Empire. The new Empire teetered on the edge of oblivion in its first decade under the Napoleonic onslaught,... More
In 1900 the Austro-Hungarian Empire was economically strong, with an excellent manufacturing and banking base. Although the absolute ruler was the Austrian Emperor, Franz Josef, it was run by a dual monarchy, with Austria and Hungary having their own governments and internal autonomy. Described as a ‘multinational democracy’, with all... More
The Babylonian emperor, Hammurabi, is famous for his legal code, which addressed issues as wide-ranging as cowboy builders and medical malpractice. However, when it came to boundary disputes, he wrote his own laws. He first allied with the Persian Gulf state of Larsa to repulse an invasion from Elam, then... More
The Battle of Vienna (1683) effectively marked the end of the Ottoman threat to the West, and initiated the erosion of its territorial possessions in Europe. The Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) saw the Habsburgs gain Hungary and Transylvania, while their Venetian allies acquired Morea. Smarting from these losses, the Ottomans... More