Rory O’ Connor, former High King of Ireland, died in his eighties in peaceful retirement at Cong Abbey (1198). Rory had inadvertently sparked the Norman invasion when he crushed Dermot MacMurragh of Leinster in battle. MacMurragh enlisted Norman support to regain his lands, making Richard Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke his... More
Under the Anglo-Irish treaty, the Irish Free State was established as a semi-independent territory under the British Crown. It comprised 26 of Ireland’s 32 counties, with the remaining six counties (which were predominantly nationalist) part of the United Kingdom. Sinn Féin, the Irish Republicans, wanted full independence and repudiated the... More
The Battle of Antietam on 17 September 1862 produced the single bloodiest day of the American Civil War with combined casualties of 23,000. On the ground it was indecisive, with the two armies fighting themselves to a standstill. Its repercussions would, however, prove pivotal – the Confederate Commander Robert E.... More
In autumn 1862, General Buell’s Army of the Ohio pursued Braxton Bragg’s Confederate Army into Kentucky. Sterling Price’s Confederate Army of the West was mobilized to block Ulysses S. Grant’s Armies of the Mississippi and Tennessee from reinforcing Buell. Price fixed upon the small town of Iuka to make his... More
Since the 1956 Suez Crisis, a United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) had been stationed in Sinai to safeguard the Israeli-Egyptian border zone agreed at the end of the 1948–49 Arab-Israeli War. By spring 1967, tensions were escalating. In response to repeated guerrilla incursions, Israel had clashed with Jordan, killing 18... More
In November 1947, a United Nations (UN) resolution agreed partition of British Palestine into separate, independent Jewish and Arab states. It was further specified that the area of paramount religious significance – the environs of Jerusalem – would be placed under UN control. Arab states, and the Palestinian Arabs, violently... More
By 1936, disquiet amongst Palestine’s Arab population had reached breaking point. The influx of Jewish settlers was constant and had begun to seriously affect the Arabs’ ability to earn a living as land was bought up by Jewish settlement funds and Arabs were excluded from employment opportunities. On 15 April,... More
As Turkish nationalist factions grew in strength following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, other ethnic groups in the Ottoman Empire began to be sidelined. The Arabs, who constituted around 60 per cent of the Ottoman Empire’s population, were marginalized by new policies aimed at Turkification. The Arabs had traditionally... More
Increasing discontent across the Arab world boiled over in early 2011, resulting in a series of uprisings and conflicts across the region against the existing structures of government. The Arab Spring started in Sidi Bouzid, Tunisia, after a street vendor named Mohamed Bouazizi set himself on fire on 17 December,... More
On the eve of World War I, there were 2 million Armenians in the declining Ottoman Empire. By 1922, there were fewer than 400,000. In 1908 the Young Turk movement of discontented junior army officers seized power, determined to modernise and nationalise the Empire. In 1914 they entered World War... More
At the outset of World War I, Germany had seven armies arrayed along the western front supported by five cavalry brigades. Facing them were five French armies, the Belgian Army and, soon, the British Expeditionary Force. The German and French armed forces were well matched numerically (840,000 versus 761,000), but... More
The Armistice was designed to achieve an immediate cessation of hostilities between Germany and the Allied Powers; its provisions did not address the disposition of German colonies, Austria-Hungary or the Ottomans. In respect of the western front it stipulated that German troops should immediately withdraw from France, Belgium, Alsace-Lorraine and... More