On Europe’s periphery, Ireland was a late recipient of the Black Death. It arrived first in the port of Drogheda in August 1348, but spread rapidly: soon, a 100 a day were dying in Dublin. It also entered the country through the southern ports of Waterford, Cork, New Ross and... More
The St Nazaire Raid was conducted with the objective of destroying the Germans’ vital Atlantic repair port. Without it their warships had to venture past heavily defended UK waters for repairs. The British plan involved the use of HMS Campbeltown, an obsolete destroyer that had been stripped to raise its... More
As the start of the winter push to remove the Germans from Stalingrad, the Red Army conducted Operation Uranus to encircle the German 6th Army, which had become embedded in the city after months of fighting. On 19 November the operation began with a heavy attack focussed on the Romanian... More
The summer of 1942 saw a huge push of German Army Group South into southern Russia towards the city of Stalingrad as part of the larger movement towards the oilfields of the Caucasus. The German 6th Army advanced rapidly towards Stalingrad following a Russian fighting retreat whilst Army Group A... More
In the first half of the 7th century CE, the extent of the Byzantine Empire was greatly reduced by the conquests of the Rashidun Caliphate. It responded with a comprehensive reorganization of its armed forces (659–62) adopting structure and battle tactics that would remain intact until the crushing defeat at... More
Greenwich Mean Time was introduced in 1675, in conjunction with the opening of the Royal Observatory, but it was introduced as a navigational aid for mariners, not to govern timekeeping practice, which remained highly localized. The development of railway travel accelerated the need for standardization; the accelerated pace of travel... More
On 23 March 1983 President Ronald Reagan announced a new national defence program called the Strategic Defence Initiative. It was later dubbed ‘Star Wars’ by the media due to the futuristic array of anti-missile systems for which it provided development funding. As the intercontinental ballistic missile arsenals of the US... More
In 1973, the US Supreme Court ruled that while abortion was legal (Roe v. Wade) individual states could impose their own restrictions, concerning dates of termination, parental disclosure and abortion risk information. Except for the states of Washington, New York, Alaska and Hawaii who, pre-1973, permitted abortion for any reason,... More
By the 1770s many colonists insisted that the British could not be allowed to impede expansion into the west. John Cartwright, a British parliamentary reformer, responded by making plans for 19 new colonies in 1774. He created carefully researched, comprehensive state maps. His plans were rejected because they were politically... More
Through most of the 18th century, the Newcomen steam engine dominated British industry, but it had shortcomings, which James Watt set out to address. In the 1760s, Watt produced an engine with greater fuel efficiency, but it was not until 1775 that he would design a model capable of the... More
In the Spring of 1864, the Union launched attacks against the Confederacy across multiple theatres. The westernmost prong of this assault was led by Major General Frederick Steele through Arkansas, with the aim of joining up with General Banks’s Red River Campaign through Louisiana. If successful, this operation would have... More
The Arkansas Campaign began with the invasion of Little Rock, Arkansas, by Union Major General Frederick Steel in March 1864. The intention was both to force the Confederate garrison towns to capitulate and to meet up with Major General Nathaniel P. Banks’s Unionist Red River Expedition. On 23 March, Steele’s... More