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Possessions of Military Orders c. 1320
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Possessions of Military Orders c. 1320
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'Military orders' was the name given to the ecclesiastical knights or ‘warrior monks’ who emerged in Europe during the late 11th century. They were the military arm of the Catholic Church and consisted of the Templars, Hospital, Teutonic and Spanish orders. The Spanish Orders emerged as part of the Reconquista,... More
Post Colonial Wars 1948–89
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Post Colonial Wars 1948–89
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After achieving independence, many African states experienced various forms of armed conflict, which served to hold back economic and social development across the continent. The legacy of the old colonial borders is believed to have played an important role in this widespread conflict as they were drawn by the European... More
Post-1945 Military Involvement in Politics
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Post-1945 Military Involvement in Politics
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Military rule was ingrained in Latin America from the establishment of the viceroyalties of New Spain and Brazil (the preceding Aztec, Maya and Inca were hardly pacific cultures). The prevailing land use model – vast haciendas, supported by encomienda forced labour or the mass import of slaves – spawned oligarchic... More
Post-1945 Military Involvement in Politics in Latin America
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Post-1945 Military Involvement in Politics in Latin America
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Following the conclusion of World War II, the schism between the US and the Soviet Union, which formed around their contesting political ideologies, consolidated into the Cold War. The struggle between capitalism and communism spread across most of the developing world and in South America in particular Communist political movements... More
Post-Apartheid South Africa 1994–95
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Post-Apartheid South Africa 1994–95
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The period between Nelson Mandela’s release from 27 years in prison in 1990 and South Africa’s first post-apartheid elections in 1994 was extremely fraught. Afrikaner hard-liners were determined to derail the process of apartheid repeal, but there was also dissension amongst the various representatives of the black majority. In particular... More
Post-Imperial Successor Regimes late 10th Century
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Post-Imperial Successor Regimes late 10th Century
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In the late 10th century, the Abbasid Caliphate had split into many independent states and was weakened by internal fighting. The Shia Fatimids, who broke from the Abbasids in 909, took control of Egypt c. 969 and occupied the holy cities of Medina and Mecca. In 945, the Iranian Buyids... More
Post-Soviet Ukraine 1991–2022
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Post-Soviet Ukraine 1991–2022
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On 21 August 1991 Ukraine withdrew from the Soviet Union; five months later, on 1 December, a referendum on the Act of Declaration of Independence was held and was passed by an overwhelming majority of 92.3%. The first decades of independence proved to be fraught with political instability; the majority... More
Post-War Europe 1945–52
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Post-War Europe 1945–52
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After World War II, Europe faced a refugee crisis. The International Refugee Organization was formed in 1946 to manage these displaced persons. The Cold War was just beginning and heightened tension between the Soviet Union and NATO members made discussions about repatriation difficult. Many refugees were Polish, Ukrainian, Yugoslav and... More
Post–Imperial Successor Regimes early 11th century
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Post–Imperial Successor Regimes early 11th century
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By 1000, the Abbasid Caliphate existed in name only, without temporal power beyond its court in Baghdad. The surrounding region was under the rule of the Buwayhids, a dynasty from Daylam on the shores of the Caspian, who had conquered Fars in 934, and the rest of Iraq rapidly thereafter.... More
Powell’s Thesis: 58 Basic Indian Languages
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Powell’s Thesis: 58 Basic Indian Languages
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The US soldier John Wesley Powell (1834–1902) compiled the first extensive classification of Native American languages in his 1891 work based upon an assessment of their lexical similarities. Following a lengthy process of data collection and analysis, Powell came to distinguish 58 distinct linguistic stocks or families across North America,... More
Prayer Book Rebellion 1549
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Prayer Book Rebellion 1549
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The Act of Uniformity made it law for Cranmer’s Protestant Book of Common Prayer, published in 1549, to be used in all English churches. Some churches were happy to use the new prayer book, which decreed that all services be conducted in English, while others, while prepared to adhere to... More
Pre-Muslim India 1200
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Pre-Muslim India 1200
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Jaichand, the last king of the Ghadavala dynasty, like King Harold, fell to an arrow through the eye at the battle of Chandwar (1193) near his capital, Kanauj. Unlike Harold, he was then trampled by elephants, so his corpse could only be identified by its gold-capped teeth. This victory, by... More