New Spain was the first viceroyalty established in the Americas by the Spanish Crown. Formed in 1535, it comprised Florida, much of the North American southwest and northern Central America. Beneath the Viceroy, administration and jurisdiction was implemented by two ‘Royal Courts’ based in Mexico City and Guadalajara. Much of... More
Little is recorded of the early life of Jesus. The New Testament tells the following narrative. Raised in Nazareth, he worked as a carpenter before his baptism, and recognition as the Son of God, at Aenon on the Jordan. His early ministry was at Capernaum beside the Sea of Galilee:... More
A key element in Roman pacification of Gaul was largesse. Colonia Nemausus (Nȋmes) the ex-capital of the Celtic Volcae that was occupied by the Romans c. 42 BCE, is a prime example. Under Emperor Augustus, it was endowed with city walls punctuated by 14 watchtowers, an amphitheatre, temple and grand... More
On 11 September 2011, four passenger US airliners, all heading for California, were hijacked by 19 al-Qaeda terrorists. After leaving Boston, Flight AA11 crashed into the north tower of the World Trade Center in New York at 8:46 am. Flight UA175, also from Boston, crashed into the south tower at... More
The Normans arrived in southern Italy around the millennium, and plunged into the political turmoil existing there. The Byzantines were the colonial power, pitted against various princedoms and city-states. The Normans began as mercenaries, often fighting on both sides in battles, but soon started to accumulate fiefdoms as reward for... More
Preoccupied with a series of rebellions, William the Conqueror largely ignored Scotland and Wales. His son, Robert Curthose, built the castle at Newcastle (1080), and the Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Mowbray, defeated the Scots at Alnwick (1093) The invasion of the Scots king, Malcolm, was probably provoked by Norman... More
The Norman settlement of northern France began in an era of extensive raids by various Norse tribes along the coast and rivers which were easily accessible by ship. The first recorded Norse raid along the Seine was in 820, after which small settlements were established in the area. Norman territory... More
Securing the northern end of the Cotentin Peninsula was a key strategic victory for the Allies, permitting the Americans to turn south and engage the Germans on a single front. All along the German front line it was becoming clear that they were overstretched and worn down after the continuous... More
Prior to the beach landings themselves, a total of 24,000 paratroops were dropped in the vicinities of Sword and Omaha beaches. Their objective was to secure key sites which would support the troops coming ashore. Each main Allied army was assigned specific beaches. The British landed at Sword and Gold,... More
The most recent ice age reached its peak some 20,000 years ago with sea-levels some 400 feet (120 m) lower than today. For most of North America this added a ‘sleeve’ of additional land to its coastlines, but crucially, a landbridge was created over the Bering Sea, permitting the first... More
The Treaty of Paris concluded the Seven Years’ War and confirmed Britain as the dominant colonial power in North America. France was forced to cede a huge swathe of Canada, Rupert’s Land, to Britain. Spain received Florida, together with all its holdings west of the Mississippi. There remained areas of... More
Climate affects ecosystems and the response of terrestrial vegetation to accelerated climate change (global warming) has been predicted using climate models, calculated with the help of computer programs. It has been projected that, by c. 2100, much of North America’s forests will have vanished and dry grassland will spread northwards,... More