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Mobilization in England 1147–1272
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Mobilization in England 1147–1272
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Pope Eugene III called the Second Crusade in 1144, when England was in the throes of a 20-year civil war. Nevertheless, a powerful force was raised, some 13,000 sailing from Dartmouth in territory held by the Angevin opposition to King Stephen. This force achieved the only substantive success of a... More
Monarchy in the World
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Monarchy in the World
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Monarchy describes a system of government in which the sovereign rules by order of succession, usually hereditary. Since the 19th century, the growth of parliamentary authority and the rise of communism has steadily extinguished hereditary monarchies; between 2010 and the present, there were only 43 monarchies in the world. Half... More
Monasteries in Early Russia 14th–15th centuries
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Monasteries in Early Russia 14th–15th centuries
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Christianity in Kievan Rus dates back to the 9th century, becoming the dominant religion after the conversion of Vladimir the Great in 988. Early Russian monastics were often cave–dwellers and/or hermits like St Anthony of Kiev; the size of a typical community was in single figures, or met only for... More
Mongol China: The Yüan Dynasty 1268–79
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Mongol China: The Yüan Dynasty 1268–79
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After overrunning the Jin Dynasty of northern China in 1234, the Mongols at first avoided the well-fortified cities of the southern Song. An early foray captured Hangzhou (1242), then the Mongols outflanked the Song to the west, conquering Yunnan (1253). Under the leadership of Kublai Khan (r. 1260–94), the Mongols... More
Mongol Empire after Hülegü 1279
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Mongol Empire after Hülegü 1279
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Kublai Khan (r. 1260–94), the fifth Khan of the Mongol Empire, made himself Emperor of China and, in 1271, renamed the Mongol occupied northern territories, 'the Empire of the Qa’an and Yuan’, despite not fully conquering the region until 1279. His empire was isolated from the other khanates, which paid... More
Mongol invasions 1206–59
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Mongol invasions 1206–59
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Alexander and Frederick the Great brilliantly exploited the military foundations laid by their fathers. The genius of Julius Caesar and Napoleon was nourished by the might and wealth of Rome and France. Of the iconic conquerors, only Genghis built from scratch, spending over 20 years bringing the warring tribes of... More
Mons Graupius 83 CE Phases 1 and 2
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Mons Graupius 83 CE Phases 1 and 2
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The name Mons Graupius is given to a battle fought between the Romans and Caledonians in 83 CE. The actual site has not yet been found, with the Roman historian, Tacitus, stating that it was fought at ‘Mons Graupius’ (in modern Scotland). Tacitus is thought to have exaggerated the Romans’... More
Montenegro 18th Century to post WWII
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Montenegro 18th Century to post WWII
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In the 18th century Montenegro was an ecclesiastical principality that had existed since 1686 and was made up of territories controlled by warlike clans, who were loyal to the Eastern Orthodox theocracy that controlled the country. During this period, Montenegro lost the patronage of Venice, but gained Russian support, which... More
Montgomery’s Plan, The Single Thrust
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Montgomery’s Plan, The Single Thrust
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In contrast to General Eisenhower’s ‘Broad Front’ plan, General Montgomery envisaged a better option in the form of a ‘Single Thrust’ into Germany. He believed that by consolidating Allied forces to the north ready for a quick, powerful drive through the German defences and on to Berlin, the Allies could... More
Monty’s Plan 30 June 1944
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Monty’s Plan 30 June 1944
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General Montgomery’s plan for the Allied invasion of Normandy was a modified version of existing plans drawn up by the Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander, Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Morgan. General Montgomery took the COSSAC plan and added two beaches to the three that were originally proposed. By... More
Mooring Positions in Scapa Flow 21 June 1919
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Mooring Positions in Scapa Flow 21 June 1919
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Following the end of World War I hostilities with the Armistice of Compiègne, the German High Seas Fleet was surrendered and escorted to Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands to await a decision on its fate under the Treaty of Versailles. From the beginning of 1919, whilst moored in Scapa... More
Moorish Conquest of Spain 711 to 732
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Moorish Conquest of Spain 711 to 732
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After the death of Muhammad in 632, the ruling Umayyad dynasty, originally from Mecca, rapidly expanded the Islamic Empire and the Arabic language across the North African ‘Maghreb’ region, eradicating Byzantine control. The Berber peoples of the western Maghreb at first opposed the Arabs, but were defeated at the battle... More