Monarchy describes a system of government in which the sovereign rules by order of succession, usually hereditary. Since the 19th century, the growth of parliamentary authority and the rise of communism has steadily extinguished hereditary monarchies; between 2010 and the present, there were only 43 monarchies in the world. Half... More
Christianity in Kievan Rus dates back to the 9th century, becoming the dominant religion after the conversion of Vladimir the Great in 988. Early Russian monastics were often cave–dwellers and/or hermits like St Anthony of Kiev; the size of a typical community was in single figures, or met only for... More
After overrunning the Jin Dynasty of northern China in 1234, the Mongols at first avoided the well-fortified cities of the southern Song. An early foray captured Hangzhou (1242), then the Mongols outflanked the Song to the west, conquering Yunnan (1253). Under the leadership of Kublai Khan (r. 1260–94), the Mongols... More
Kublai Khan (r. 1260–94), the fifth Khan of the Mongol Empire, made himself Emperor of China and, in 1271, renamed the Mongol occupied northern territories, 'the Empire of the Qa’an and Yuan’, despite not fully conquering the region until 1279. His empire was isolated from the other khanates, which paid... More
Alexander and Frederick the Great brilliantly exploited the military foundations laid by their fathers. The genius of Julius Caesar and Napoleon was nourished by the might and wealth of Rome and France. Of the iconic conquerors, only Genghis built from scratch, spending over 20 years bringing the warring tribes of... More
The name Mons Graupius is given to a battle fought between the Romans and Caledonians in 83 CE. The actual site has not yet been found, with the Roman historian, Tacitus, stating that it was fought at ‘Mons Graupius’ (in modern Scotland). Tacitus is thought to have exaggerated the Romans’... More
In the 18th century Montenegro was an ecclesiastical principality that had existed since 1686 and was made up of territories controlled by warlike clans, who were loyal to the Eastern Orthodox theocracy that controlled the country. During this period, Montenegro lost the patronage of Venice, but gained Russian support, which... More
In contrast to General Eisenhower’s ‘Broad Front’ plan, General Montgomery envisaged a better option in the form of a ‘Single Thrust’ into Germany. He believed that by consolidating Allied forces to the north ready for a quick, powerful drive through the German defences and on to Berlin, the Allies could... More
General Montgomery’s plan for the Allied invasion of Normandy was a modified version of existing plans drawn up by the Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander, Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Morgan. General Montgomery took the COSSAC plan and added two beaches to the three that were originally proposed. By... More
Following the end of World War I hostilities with the Armistice of Compiègne, the German High Seas Fleet was surrendered and escorted to Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands to await a decision on its fate under the Treaty of Versailles. From the beginning of 1919, whilst moored in Scapa... More
After the death of Muhammad in 632, the ruling Umayyad dynasty, originally from Mecca, rapidly expanded the Islamic Empire and the Arabic language across the North African ‘Maghreb’ region, eradicating Byzantine control. The Berber peoples of the western Maghreb at first opposed the Arabs, but were defeated at the battle... More
John Hunt Morgan, the ‘Thunderbolt of the Confederacy’, came from a well-to-do background, unlike his fellow raider, Nathan Bedford Forrest. His division ‘represented a full share of the chivalry and flower’ of Southern gentry ‘including doctors, lawyers… even clergymen’. But when unleashed they were brutally effective. The Kentucky raid of... More