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Marian’s and Caesar’s Legions 107–50 BCE
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Marian’s and Caesar’s Legions 107–50 BCE
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From 113–109 BCE, the Romans suffered a succession of military debacles at the hands of the Cimbrians in Gaul and the Numidians in North Africa. Marius, a parvenu from provincial Arpinum in central Italy, was elected consul in 107 BCE, and under threat of barbarian invasion, instigated far-reaching military reforms.... More
Marienburg Castle 1450
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Marienburg Castle 1450
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Construction of Marienburg Castle, also known as Malbork Castle, began in 1276 to serve as a stronghold for the Order of the Teutonic Knights. Originally engaging in conquests to bring Christianity to the pagan peoples of eastern Europe, the order established their own kingdom in 1283. The castle complex was... More
Mauryan Empire 322–297 BCE
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Mauryan Empire 322–297 BCE
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The Nanda Empire of Magadha in northern India escaped invasion by Alexander the Great when, at the end of his epic campaign of conquest, his troops rebelled at crossing the Ganges to confront ‘6,000 of the largest-sized war elephants’. Their good fortune was short-lived; a few years later Chandragupta Maurya... More
McClellan’s Peninsula Campaign April to June 1862
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McClellan’s Peninsula Campaign April to June 1862
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George B. McClellan, commander of the Army of the Potomac was a ‘corporate’ general, strong on mass man-management and logistics but short on military vision. The Peninsula campaign was designed to showcase his strengths but ended by ruthlessly exposing his shortcomings when pitted against the Confederate commander in northern Virginia,... More
Meadow Lakes Retirement Community 1998
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Meadow Lakes Retirement Community 1998
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The antecedents of the USA’s Continuing Care Retirement Communities (CCRC) can be traced to the mutual aid societies developed by 19th-century immigrants. Many states began to introduce old-age assistance legislation as a response to indigence in the Great Depression, while early forms of CCRCs were pioneered by professional or religious... More
Mean Temperature in Fahrenheit
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Mean Temperature in Fahrenheit
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The varied climatic zones of the US is affected by latitude and geographical features. High elevation northern areas, such the mountain ranges in Colorado and northern California, have an alpine climate. The semi-arid and desert areas in southwestern USA have hot summers and warm winters, with summers like those of... More
Medieval Edinburgh
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Medieval Edinburgh
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The natural defensive properties of Arthur’s Seat, an ancient volcano that rises 823 ft (251 m) above the site of Edinburgh have been exploited since antiquity. A Roman, then Celtic, hillfort, it became the northern outpost of the Northumbrian kingdom, before being ceded to Scotland (973). In the 1120s, King... More
Medieval Heresy and Dissent
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Medieval Heresy and Dissent
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Medieval Christianity was riven by dissenting religious movements that the Church anathematized as ‘heresies’. Of all the mediaeval heretical groups, the Albigensians, or Cathars, presented the most radical threat to Christian orthodoxy, believing that there were two Gods, the good God of the spiritual world and the evil God of... More
Medieval Western Christendom 1303–1420
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Medieval Western Christendom 1303–1420
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Owing to civil unrest in Rome, Pope Clement V moved the papal court to Avignon in 1309. Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377, but soon regretted his decision. He planned to return to Avignon but died before the move could be executed: in the ensuing chaos, rival popes... More
Medinet Habu c. 1170 BCE
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Medinet Habu c. 1170 BCE
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In the western Theban necropolis is Ramesses III’s ‘fortress like’ funerary temple and palace complex, Medinet Habu. Within its inner walls are the Royal Palace, the sandstone mortuary temple, smaller temples and additions, including a chapel built in 700 BCE. There are also storehouses and housing for the priests and... More
Megalithic Europe c. 3000 BCE
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Megalithic Europe c. 3000 BCE
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Megalithic monuments and extensive chambered tombs have been found at many sites in western Europe, but are often remote and peripheral: along the Atlantic coasts, the Northern Isles of Scotland and the islands of the Mediterranean. The variety is immense, comprising chambered cairns, long barrows, dolmen, cromlech, galleried graves and... More
Merchant Losses to U-Boats 1 January–31 May 1942
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Merchant Losses to U-Boats 1 January–31 May 1942
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Nazi Germany’s declaration of war against the United States at the end of 1941 began a new era of U-Boat attacks against merchant shipping, which was playing a vital role in supplying the UK with food and other equipment. Admiral Dönitz headed Operation Drumbeat using a handful of long range... More