In c. 1775, at the beginning of the Revolutionary War, the majority of Americans were neutral or ‘fence-sitters’. Both the British and the American patriots launched a propaganda campaign to garner support. The Americans won the propaganda war, with publications such as Thomas Paine’s ‘Common Sense’ calling for independence from... More
Lynching (or extrajudicial killing) was not an exclusively white against black phenomenon. In fact, the worst mass lynchings on record are of Chinese immigrants in Los Angeles (1871, 19 killed), Mexican Americans in Porvenir, Texas (1918, 18 killed) and Italian Americans in New Orleans, Louisiana (1891, 11 killed). Nevertheless, the... More
After his pivotal victory at Issus in 333 BCE, Alexander the Great swept south to capture Egypt, exploiting its wealth to finance his assault on the Persian Empire. After several months, Alexander left to campaign eastward, appointing Cleomenes as his governor in Egypt. On Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, the... More
The Second Confiscation and Militia Act of July 1862 authorized the recruitment of black troops to the Union Army. By the end of the war, they comprised 10 per cent of its total strength, and their mortality rate at over 20 per cent would be significantly higher than white troops... More
During World War II, operational groups were stationed at over 100 separate airbases, from which each squadron undertook their sorties as instructed by the centralized Bomber Command, which was formed in 1936. Bomber Command played a vital role in the destruction of German invasion barges in the channel ports during... More
The Meiji Restoration, which restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868, precipitated an intense drive for modernization that resulted in the destruction of many of Japan’s castles, seen as unwelcome reminders of the country’s prolonged state of feudalism. More were destroyed during World War II by targeted American bombing. Barely... More
To launch an attack on the Marshall Islands, a suitable island base was needed as a stepping-stone. After plans to invade Nauru fell through, Makin Atoll was chosen as a suitable location. The invasion plan comprised a two-pronged attack. Firstly, troops would land on Red Beach in the west in... More
Following independence, the new states incorporated in the West overwhelmingly abandoned the property and tax-paying qualifications for white male suffrage that were standard in the 13 ex-colonies. Under pressure to reciprocate, eastern legislatures began to enact liberalizing measures in respect of white males – while removing previous eligibilities to vote... More
The word ‘mamluk’ comes from the Arabic for slave and the Mamluks originated as slave soldiers, who took power, and founded a dynasty. The early Mamluks, particularly the relentless conqueror Baybars, drove the Crusaders from the Levant, their expulsion completed by the capture of Acre (1291). The apex of Mamluk... More
The location of the oppidum (fortified settlement) of Manching was chosen primarily for commerce. At the juncture of the Paar and Danube rivers, and major overland trade routes, it was also blessed with rich local deposits of iron ore and gold. A massive post-slot wall of stone and timber 4.4... More
Keeill is a Gaelic name for the many Christian chapels once scattered across the island of Manx (the Isle of Man). Constructed as solitary ‘cells’ or ‘keeills’ by clergy who acted as spiritual advisors to the local community, the earliest keeills are thought to have been made from mud and... More
‘The 10,000’ were an army of Greek mercenaries, headed by the Spartan, Clearchus. Their story was immortalized in the Anabasis, Xenophon’s first-hand account of their hazardous journey homeward from Babylonia to the Black Sea. Their adventure had begun in central coastal Anatolia, where Clearchus, expelled as tyrant from Byzantium, allied... More