The earliest northern Korean kingdom, founded in the later 1st millennium BCE, was Gojoseon while, in the south, the Jin kingdom dominated in the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE. In 108 BCE the Chinese Han dynasty defeated Gojoseon, bringing about the Proto-Three Kingdoms era, comprising a series of small independent... More
The North Korean invasion of the Republic of South Korea on 25 June 1950 advanced against an uncoordinated and ill equipped defence. The United Nations condemned the attack and the United States despatched air and ground forces in support of the retreating southern forces. Within two months the combined UN... More
Intended to divert German resources away from the French in Verdun, the Lake Naroch offensive began with a two-day artillery bombardment (17–18 March) on the German positions. This area was chosen because there were 350,000 Russians facing 75,000 Germans. The bombardment failed to hit its target and made little impact... More
In 1790, although it was determined that all commerce with Native Americans, including land purchases, should be fair and under federal jurisdiction, hostility remained between Native Americans and the settlers. Between 1790–1832 many Indian treaties were signed under federal authority. However, some tribes felt their lands were ceded under pressure,... More
In the Ordinance of 1785, Thomas Jefferson proposed that the vast new territories acquired under the Treaty of Paris should be incorporated into the new Union as separate (rather than expanded) states: the mechanism for new state creation would be further clarified in the North-West Ordinance of 1787. While these... More
In 1991, the USSR announced the independence of its former republics. After 1991, the privatized farms could not afford fertilizers or new machinery, causing yields to drop. Up to 1991, the Soviet Union was the world’s second leading power; yet despite its state-owned farming collectives yielding vast quantities of grain,... More
The Allied landings on the marshland south of Rome on 22 January were virtually unopposed and quickly secured a beachhead, but US Major General John Lucas did not exploit their element of surprise and drive directly on to Rome, preferring instead to consolidate his forces at Anzio. This gave the... More
Following the amphibious landings at Salerno on 9 September, Allied inroads were made further inland. The bulk of German forces, which had been waiting behind the front line, launched a counterattack on 13 September. This offensive was effective enough to force Allied command to make contingency plans for an emergency... More
With the Americans’ capture of the Philippine and Mariana Islands, the Japanese regarded Iwo Jima, with its three airfields and its warning system of air raids against the mainland, as being of increasing importance. Lieutenant General Tadamichi Kuribayashi accordingly fortified the entire island with a sophisticated and complex network of... More
In the late 12th century German-speaking Teutonic Knights, operating from a network of castles, formed a religious-cum-military order committed to subduing the Baltic region, spreading Christianity, and protecting Christians making their pilgrimages to Jerusalem. As well as fighting the Egyptians for control of that distant holy city in the 5th... More
Following the heavy defeat of the Teutonic Order of Knights by the Polish-Lithuanian alliance at Tannenberg in 1410, the Order’s control and reputation began to weaken. Most of the Order’s senior knights had been killed on the battlefield, and the remainder were obliged to fall back and defend their capital... More
Being Muslim does not mean that a follower is restricted to specific languages. Instead, they follow their own culture and speak the native language of the part of the world they occupy. The Quran was revealed in Arabic and many non-Arabic speaking Muslims learn Arabic in order to read an... More