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Islamic Spain c. 1030
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Islamic Spain c. 1030
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Cordoba’s collapse in 1031 marked the end of southern Spain’s Islamic golden age and the beginning of the disintegration of its empire. Amir Abd al-Rahman I, the emir of Cordoba, had successfully united the separate Muslim kingdoms, creating stability and a climate of religious and ethnic tolerance. Jews and Christians... More
Island No 10 and New Madrid 3 March–8 April 1862
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Island No 10 and New Madrid 3 March–8 April 1862
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After marching through swamps, Union forces, led by Brigadier General John Pope, lay siege to New Madrid, Missouri, from 3–14 March 1862. New Madrid was in the Mississippi flood plain and a strongpoint for defending the Mississippi River. After Union forces repulsed the Confederate raiders and bombed their fortifications, the... More
Isle of Man in the Bronze Age 2000-600 BCE
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Isle of Man in the Bronze Age 2000-600 BCE
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It is thought that the beginning of the Bronze Age on the Isle of Man (c. 2000–600 BCE) was ignited by an influx of migrants from continental Europe who arrived on the island via Britain. Not only did these settlers bring metal-working and bronze artefacts to the island, but they... More
Israel and Judah at the Time of Jeroboam II 786–746 BCE
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Israel and Judah at the Time of Jeroboam II 786–746 BCE
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Israel enjoyed stability and prosperity and was at the peak of its economic and military power under the reign of Jeroboam II, the 14th king of Israel. Jeroboam II expanded Israel’s borders to include Hamath (west central Syria), in addition to recovering all the land lost by his predecessors. This... More
Israeli Counterattack May 1948–March 1949
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Israeli Counterattack May 1948–March 1949
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From May 1948, the balance of military power swung decisively in Israel’s favour. A rapid inflow of volunteers from home and abroad gave them troop parity by June 1948, a 2:1 advantage six months later. A steady supply of fighter planes from Czechoslovakia gave Israel command of the air, while... More
Italian Government and High Command 1915–18
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Italian Government and High Command 1915–18
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Italy’s decision to enter the war on the Allied side was governed by what its prime minister, Antonio Salandra, termed ‘sacred egoism’; essentially the Allies promised a victory bonus of European territory from Austria-Hungary and Germany’s colonies. Most of the council of deputies were opposed to war, and Salandra would... More
Italian States 1789
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Italian States 1789
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Following the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14) Austria was the dominant foreign power in Italy – the Papal States, the maritime republics of Venice and Genoa, and the Duchy of Savoy all remained independent. The power of the Papal States had declined after the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, when the... More
Italian Unification 1861
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Italian Unification 1861
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The unification of Italy, also known as the Risorgimento, was a complex process that transformed Italy from a mosaic of independent states, kingdoms and foreign-controlled territories into a united Italian state. The movement for Italian unification emerged in the early 19th century, fuelled by a desire for political independence, cultural... More
Italy 1713–48
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Italy 1713–48
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Under the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, much of Italy passed from Spanish to Austrian control. The Papal States, which had lost much of their power during the Reformation, retained independence, along with Venice. After defeating the Ottomans, Venice had fallen into economic stagnation. Naples joined Sicily in protesting against punitive... More
Italy 1815–1924
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Italy 1815–1924
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After the Napoleonic occupation ended in 1815, much of Italy wanted unification, but was prohibited from doing so by Austrian intervention. Under Austria’s insistence, a decision was made by conservative forces within Europe to restore Italy to its pre-Napoleonic borders. Austria was given control of the kingdom of Lombardy and... More
Italy and its Empire 1914
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Italy and its Empire 1914
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Italy, like Germany, did not complete reunification until after the Franco-Prussian War ended in 1871 and, consequently, was a latecomer to colonialism, the ‘Scramble for Africa’. Italy was a relatively young empire and lacked the many possessions of France and Great Britain. In 1911, Italy declared war on the Ottoman... More
Italy c. 1000
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Italy c. 1000
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By the year 1000, Italy was divided between a number of different empires, kingdoms and regional leaders In 961 Otto I of Germany had invaded the Kingdom of the Lombards, uniting the crowns of Italy and Germany, and creating the Holy Roman Empire. Lombardy was the nucleus of imperial Italy,... More