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  • Iraq 20 March 2003

    Iraq 20 March 2003

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    Iraq 20 March 2003

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    From the 1990s onwards, Iraq’s military strength was much reduced following the Gulf War. As international opposition to Saddam Hussein’s regime grew in the months leading up to the 20 March 2003 invasion, US forces were amassed in Kuwait ready for a thrust north towards Baghdad. Special Forces were also... More
  • Iraq, Syria and Persia April–September 1941

    Iraq, Syria and Persia April–September 1941

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    Iraq, Syria and Persia April–September 1941

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    Britain had the use of two RAF bases in Iraq, at Shaibah near Basra and Habbaniya near Baghdad. In April 1941, a coup by the pro-Nazi Iraqi prime minister, Rashid Ali, overthrew the pro-British Iraqi regent, endangering Allied oil supplies, and cutting off a vital air and land link between... More
  • Ireland in June 1922

    Ireland in June 1922

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    Ireland in June 1922

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    The revolutionary leader, soldier and politician Michael Collins argued that the Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) gave Ireland ‘the freedom to achieve freedom’. He also told his counterparty, Lord Birkenhead, that by signing it he had signed his own ‘death warrant’. This would prove prophetic: he was ambushed and killed by anti-Treaty... More
  • Ireland’s Railways by 1900

    Ireland’s Railways by 1900

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    Ireland’s Railways by 1900

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    After the first line was opened in Dublin (1834), Ireland’s railway system expanded rapidly. At its peak, post-World War I, the network covered 3,500 miles (5,600 km). The gauge used for track was standardized in 1843. Pressure to coordinate railway timetabling resulted in the Definition of Time Act (1880), whereby... More
  • Irish Catholicism 1793–1902

    Irish Catholicism 1793–1902

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    Irish Catholicism 1793–1902

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    The early 19th century witnessed a resurgence in the Irish Catholic Church, characterized by a cathedral-building boom, rising numbers of clergy, and an accompanying ‘devotional’ revolution. The turnaround began with the phased removal of the anti Catholic Penal Laws (1778–93), and an important engine was Maynooth Seminary, north of Dublin,... More
  • Irish Churchmen and Scholars in Europe

    Irish Churchmen and Scholars in Europe

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    Irish Churchmen and Scholars in Europe

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    Traces of the earliest Irish missionaries in Europe come in fabular form through the fog of the early Dark Ages. St Fridolin is reported to have founded churches and abbeys as far afield as Switzerland in the early 6th century. The origin of many of the early missions was St... More
  • Irish Dynasties and English Settlement c. 1300

    Irish Dynasties and English Settlement c. 1300

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    Irish Dynasties and English Settlement c. 1300

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    Dermot MacMurrough, King of Leinster, who had been exiled by Rory O’Connor, the High King of Ireland, originally invited the Normans to Ireland. Despite O’Connor’s grand title, Ireland was by then divided between warring fiefdoms, and ripe for conquest when MacMurrough returned (1167) with Norman support under Richard Strongbow, Earl... More
  • Irish Economy to 1841

    Irish Economy to 1841

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    Irish Economy to 1841

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    The Napoleonic Wars (1793–1815) created boom conditions. Insulated from the continent-wide conflict, Ireland’s agricultural sector, which exported meat and increasingly grain, benefited from escalating food prices. Landowners converted pasture to tillage to become Britain’s ‘bread-basket’, using ‘cottier’ tenant farmers and ‘conacre’ labourers, who subsisted on high-yield potato crops on progressively... More
  • Irish Emigration 1690–1845

    Irish Emigration 1690–1845

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    Irish Emigration 1690–1845

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    In 1836, half the population of Newfoundland was of Irish descent, overwhelmingly Catholics from Munster who had originally participated in the seasonal trans-Atlantic fisheries. High rents, enclosure, and rapacious agents of absentee landlords created endemic unrest in rural Ireland, exemplified by secret societies like the Ribbonmen and White Boys, and... More
  • Irish General Election 1918

    Irish General Election 1918

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    Irish General Election 1918

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    Eamonn De Valera was a commander in the Easter Rising, narrowly escaping execution. Sentenced instead to life imprisonment, he was abruptly released by amnesty in 1917, and, as a rare surviving rebel leader, was promptly elected leader of Sinn Féin, now the political vehicle of the rebel cause. The 1918... More
  • Irish in America 1850–1929

    Irish in America 1850–1929

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    Irish in America 1850–1929

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    Early Irish immigration was predominantly Presbyterian, and often gravitated to the frontiers of the time. The Great Famine (1848–52) triggered a massive increase in immigration, which was overwhelmingly Catholic. The newer arrivals usually settled in major urban centres, particularly New York, Boston and Philadelphia. The New England mill towns and... More
  • Irish Penal Laws

    Irish Penal Laws

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    Irish Penal Laws

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    The Irish statesman, Edmund Burke, described the Penal Laws thus: ‘a machine of wise and elaborate contrivance, as well fitted for the oppression, impoverishment and degradation of a people… as ever proceeded from the perverted ingenuity of man’. The Laws were promulgated piecemeal from the Tudor Reformation onwards, then intensified... More