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Indian Wars and Railroads in the West 1860–93
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Indian Wars and Railroads in the West 1860–93
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The Indians of the West experienced an apocalypse from the 1850s; its four horsemen were floods of settlers, bison hunters, the US cavalry and the ‘iron horse’ of the railroads. The Homestead Act (1862) accelerated westward migration of the land-hungry. While Indian attacks on homesteaders provoked outrage and reprisal, Mormons... More
Indian, Pakistan and Ceylon Languages c. 1950
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Indian, Pakistan and Ceylon Languages c. 1950
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After independence in 1947, English was no longer the official language of the governments in the three countries of the Indian subcontinent. By c. 1950, the Indo-Aryan languages dominated, with Urdu the lingua franca of Pakistan, and Hindi the official language of India. Urdu was also spoken in Nepal, parts... More
Indo-European Migration 5000-900 BCE
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Indo-European Migration 5000-900 BCE
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The location of the cradle of the Indo-European peoples is a matter of academic dispute. Based on a mix of archaeology and linguistic analysis, Anatolia, Armenia and the Zagros Mountains each have their proponents, but the consensus has favoured the ‘Kurgan Hypothesis. This places the zone of origin in the... More
Indochina War 1946–64
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Indochina War 1946–64
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On 22 August 1945 the Japanese across French Indochina announced an informal surrender. They assisted the Viet Minh nationalist group in taking over the administration and handed over their weapons before the French could bring in reinforcements. The Viet Minh then declared independence from France on 2 September 1945, shortly... More
Industries 1901
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Industries 1901
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In 1901, Britain led the world in manufacturing and industry after great expansion and developments during the 19th century. There was an increase in international trade, export successes across the Empire and a new demand for consumer goods from the growing middle-classes. The coal, iron, steel and engineering industries created... More
Industry by 1920
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Industry by 1920
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Henry Ford was the archetypal American industrial mogul and inventor of mass production; at his Ford Motor Company (founded in 1903) ‘The chain never stops, the pace never varies. The man is part of the chain, the feeder and slave of it’. Between 1890 and 1920, America transformed from a... More
Industry c. 1800
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Industry c. 1800
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In 1800, British trade was still governed by mercantilist principles, expressed by Navigation Acts that reserved the shipping of British goods to British vessels, and imposed swingeing duties on foreign imports. The free trade advanced by Adam Smith in his Wealth of Nations (1776) would not prevail until the mid-19th... More
Industry in Britain 1715–1815
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Industry in Britain 1715–1815
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Coalbrookdale in Shropshire was the Industrial Revolution’s ‘Silicon Valley’, with Abraham Darby I, II and III, the tech titans of their day. The first Abraham pioneered the use of coal in iron-smelting, and the industrial use of Newcomen’s steam engine. The third Abraham constructed (from cast-iron) the revolutionary Iron Bridge.... More
Infantry Versus Tanks 1940
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Infantry Versus Tanks 1940
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Anti-tank weapons and tactics progressed rapidly throughout the war in response to increasingly powerful and well-armoured tanks. The anti-tank rifle was a popular weapon in most armies towards the start of the war but gradually became less effective as an infantry tool as tank armour thickened. Hand-held anti-tank weapons progressed... More
Initial Assault on Stalingrad 26 September–18 November 1942
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Initial Assault on Stalingrad 26 September–18 November 1942
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The German assault on Stalingrad, using the 6th Army and elements of the 4th Panzer Army, began in August 1942 and soon deteriorated into brutal close quarters combat as stalemate set in. From their initial incursions into the southern sector of the city, German troops began the slow and arduous... More
Interdiction Bombing of Northern France 1944
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Interdiction Bombing of Northern France 1944
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As part of the Transport Plan, interdiction bombing aimed specifically to limit the movements of German forces to the front line following the D-Day landings by cutting key bridges and rail routes, whilst minimizing civilian casualties. Due to the importance of the element of surprise for Operation Overlord’s success, interdiction... More
International Organizations c. 2004
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International Organizations c. 2004
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Independent organizations are collections of independent political entities or sovereign states, who help maintain stability and peace by encouraging cooperation and shared benefits, such as tariff elimination between member countries. In 2004, the EU (European Union) trade bloc had its largest single expansion and included many new countries from eastern... More