The Atlantic hurricane season of 2005 was the most active and devastating on record. Hurricane Katrina first emerged over the Bahamas on 23 August before moving west, clipping southern Florida. At this stage it was a category 1 storm on the Saffir-Sampson scale with wind speeds of 74–95 miles (119–154... More
The Peninsular War began after Portugal refused to cease trading with Britain, going against Napoleon’s planned economic starvation of Britain. Initially Spain was allied with France, participating in the swift invasion of Portugal in November 1807, however Napoleon soon seized the Spanish crown and awarded it to his brother Joseph.... More
The Celtic migration into Spain was more infiltration than invasion, either a steady trickle or a series of waves. As a result, pre-existing populations were not necessarily overwhelmed, and the main concentrations of Celtic settlements were spatially separated in the northwest (their tribes lending their names to modern Galicia, Asturias... More
Between 1729–87 several trading companies were established on the Iberian Peninsula. The Spanish Empire was in decline, compared to the thriving Portuguese Empire. The French Bourbon royal family, who were asserting their claim to the Spanish throne, were determined to revive Spain’s flagging economy by setting up trading companies to... More
Underpinning German and English emigration to the US in the middle of the 19th century were smallholders and tenant farmers escaping the impact of industrialization and agrarian reform. Overlaying this steady stream were spikes generated by specific events. A sectarian migration arose from the forced unification of the Lutheran and... More
At the battle of Minorca (1756), the British Admiral John Byng’s excessive caution led to the loss of the island to the French. But his subsequent court-martial and execution – as Voltaire put it, ironically, ‘pour encourager les autres’ – was draconian. Duly encouraged, the surviving British admirals reeled off... More
The Golden Bull (1356) specifying the rules of election for Holy Roman Emperors resulted in a diminution of imperial authority. By the end of the 15th century there was a recognition, even amongst the electors, that the empire’s constitution rendered it vulnerable to the growing might of the Ottomans, and... More
The French Revolution would prove doubly toxic to the Spanish and Portuguese New World empires. Its liberation ideology would infect the local Criollo elites (of sole or mainly Iberian descent), while the Napoleonic occupation of the Iberian Peninsula (1808–14) disrupted imperial control over far-flung colonies. By 1833, all the mainland... More
Although World War I was triggered by Austrian and Russian conflict over Serbia, prior to this there were tensions generated by the imperialist agendas of the different European powers. By 1914, the Ottoman Empire was in decline and Russia had lost a war with Japan over disputed territories in Manchuria,... More
The Roman Empire Hadrian inherited from Trajan in 117 CE was at its political and social peak. It was the largest empire in western civilization and covered a swathe of territories, extending from Britannia to Mesopotamia. The empire had begun life as a republic and was greatly extended under Julius... More
The three great empires which dominated eastern Europe and its hinterlands in 1914 were brutally exposed by the realities of modern industrial warfare; each had been overthrown or dismembered by the war’s end. At the outset, Imperial Russia seemed better placed than its rivals; on paper its armed forces were... More
Buddhism offers major sites of pilgrimage across northern India that memorialize Buddha’s spiritual journey towards enlightenment with Buddhist temples and monasteries. Lumbini, Nepal, was Buddha’s place of birth and where, as Prince Siddhartha Gautama, he became a religious wanderer, searching for the meaning of life. In Rajagaha he became a... More