Construction of an underground railway in London started in 1863 and was financed by the Metropolitan Railway. It was an engineering feat, initially using ‘cut and cover’ shallow tunnels, and eventually involving the construction of deep tunnels. The first line connected the City to railway termini at Paddington, Euston and... More
During the morning of 10 May the XIX Panzerkorps, under the command of General Guderian, crossed Luxembourg to reach the Belgian border. Over 300 roads and bridges had been mined by Belgian troops, although the border itself was not adequately defended and the advance was rapid, with Belgian troops ordered... More
After the collapse of the Kerensky offensive, the Germans sought to press home their advantage and drive the Russians into suing for peace. On the ground, General von Hutier pioneered the mobile storm trooper tactics later transferred to the western front and captured the port of Riga at the beginning... More
The Germans built their first aircraft bomber bases in occupied Belgium at Ghistelles and Zeebrugge, near Ostend, followed by St Denis and Gontrode. The German ‘fliegerkorps’ used the bases to launch attacks on enemy lines on the western front and the British naval forces in the straits of Dover. In... More
After an initial delay in launching a counterattack, the German 21st Panzer Division made a move north in an attempt to drive the Allies back to the beach. A first counterattack targeted the 6th Airborne Division who had managed to push east over the vital bridgehead captured right at the... More
In response to progress made by the Americans during Operation Cobra, a German counterattack, known as Operation Lüttich, was launched around Mortain. The main force involved was an assortment of panzer divisions totalling around 300 tanks and any infantry that could be scraped together from the front line. Although the... More
The Soviet offensive of November 1943, which had pushed across the Dnieper and through Kiev, gradually lost steam and came to a halt around Zhytomyr where the Germans managed to focus reinforcements ready for a counterattack. Troop movements around Brusilov were severely limited due to poor weather and ground conditions.... More
As it became increasingly obvious that the Allies were planning a large scale offensive against mainland Europe, the Germans had to try to bolster their defences on the western front. The eastern front was still using resources at an unprecedented rate as the Red Army gathered momentum, so extra fighting... More
Nazi Germany’s pursuit of Lebensraum (‘living space’), began legitimately. The 1935 Saarland plebiscite had been mandated at Versailles, and the Saarlanders elected to join Germany. Hitler seemed taken with plebiscites: he held another the following year in the Rhineland, after first occupying it with his army in contravention of Versailles,... More
At the head of the German chain of command was Kaiser Wilhelm II who had power over both arms of the military and government. The Kaiser appointed the Chancellor as the conductor of state affairs, the main position of power over the civilian officials in the chain of command as... More
After the defeat of Germany and the Paris Peace Conference, the League of Nations was established in January 1920 to strengthen worldwide security and provide a means of conflict-resolution. Former German colonial territories were 'distributed' amongst the allies by means of a series of 'mandates' under Article 22 of the... More
After the defeat of Germany and the Paris Peace Conference, the League of Nations was established in January 1920 to strengthen worldwide security and provide a peaceful method of conflict-resolution. Former German colonial territories were distributed by means of a series of 'mandates' under Article 22 of the League's Covenant.... More