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France in 1585
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France in 1585
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Between 1562–98, France fought a total of nine wars of religion, pitting the Catholics against the Protestant Huguenots. The dominant figures on the Catholic side were Catherine de’ Medici, mother of the House of Valois kings, Charles IX and Henri III, and the ducal family of Guise. The Protestants were... More
France in 1789
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France in 1789
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In 1789, pre-revolutionary France was a jumble of mostly feudal lands, 80 per cent peasant, which had been acquired over preceding centuries. While French was the language of the north, in southern France many only spoke their regional language. The political and administrative structures of pre-revolutionary France were subject to... More
France in 1789: Language and Law
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France in 1789: Language and Law
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Pre-Revolutionary France was a lawyers paradise: written Roman law prevailed in the south, customary feudal law in the north, with frequent local overlap in codes and practice. Intendents were the regional representatives of royal authority, controlling the policing, finances and justiciary of the provinces they administered. The Prévots Maréchaux handled... More
Francia 990–1031
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Francia 990–1031
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Hugh Capet established the Capetian line in 987 when he was elected king of the Franks. His direct line of hereditary rule which would last 13 generations. Hugh made his son Robert co-ruler shortly after his own coronation, claiming that another king was needed in case he died during an... More
Francia at the Death of Chlothar II c. 628
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Francia at the Death of Chlothar II c. 628
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Upon the death of Chilperic I in 584, Chlothar II (584–628) became king of Neustria and, later, of all Francia. As an infant he was under the regency of his mother Fredegund, taking power upon her death in 597. In 599 Clothar declared war on his Burgundian nephews, but was... More
Francia at the death of Chlothar, 561
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Francia at the death of Chlothar, 561
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The Frankish Kingdom founded by Clovis I was divided at his death in c. 513 between his four surviving sons, a partition which inevitably generated rivalry and conflict, but also, sometimes, cooperation. Theuderic I (485–534) ruled from Rheims and Metz, coming into conflict with the Thuringians to the northwest, conquering... More
Francia at the Death of Pepin of Heristal c. 714
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Francia at the Death of Pepin of Heristal c. 714
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Pepin II of Heristal (635–714) of the rich and powerful Pippinid family, was appointed ‘Mayor of the Palace’ in 680, and at once found himself in conflict Martin of Laon and Ebroin of Neustria. In 687, at Tertry on the River Somme, the Austrasian army under Pepin overwhelmingly defeated the... More
Franco-German War 1870–71
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Franco-German War 1870–71
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The trigger for war was a diplomatic row over the Spanish succession. Provoked by Bismarck, the Prussian chancellor, France declared war, which Bismarck countered with an alliance of the German states. Mobilizing at a speed that confounded the French, the German alliance achieved a string of victories in the Rhineland,... More
Fredericksburg 13 December 1862
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Fredericksburg 13 December 1862
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New Union Commander Ambrose E. Burnside saw the capture of Fredericksburg as the gateway to moving on Richmond, the Confederate capital, but his bold plan was betrayed by poor logistics. Delays in the shipment of pontoons to bridge the Rappahannock River allowed Robert E. Lee to assemble his defending forces... More
Free Black Population 1800 and 1830
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Free Black Population 1800 and 1830
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Pre-Independence, the term ‘free black’ meant black people who were not slaves. This term continued until the abolition of slavery in 1865. In 1800 and 1830, the northern states’ free black populations were higher than in the south, which depended on slave labour. Vermont was the first to ban slavery... More
Free Blacks c. 1860
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Free Blacks c. 1860
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By 1860, the American black population was nearing 4 million of which c. 12 per cent were free. The proportion varied widely in those states where slavery was permitted. Delaware, largely through the activities of Quaker and Moravian preachers, had freed 92 per cent of its black population, while the... More
French Counterattacks at Montcornet and Crecy-sur-Serre 17–19 May 1940
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French Counterattacks at Montcornet and Crecy-sur-Serre 17–19 May 1940
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On 17 May 1940, the French 4th Division, under de Gaulle, attempted two attacks on German-held Montcornet. The first attack, in the early hours, took the Germans by surprise but they easily overcame the French. That afternoon, de Gaulle tried again, but the Division was overcome by gunfire and German... More