The Falkland Islands in the southern Atlantic Ocean became a British Crown colony in 1833, and have been designated 2002. a British Overseas Territory since On 2 April 1982 Argentina, believing it had a right to sovereignty, launched an amphibious invasion of the Falkland Islands and took control of the... More
The extreme wealth of Croesus was reputed to derive from the gold deposits of the River Pactolus, where according to legend, the accursed Midas had tried to wash away his ‘golden touch’. But Croesus’s overlordship of Lydia, and tribute from the wealthy Ionian cities of the coast of Asia Minor,... More
The crushing Central Powers’ victory over Russia at Gorlice-Tarnow cleaved through the eastern front. With German armies simultaneously advancing along the Baltic coast, the Russian High Command feared encirclement if they concentrated their forces in defence of Poland and retreated rapidly. Eventually, they tried to consolidate behind the Bug River,... More
After the declaration of independence in 1776, the 15–20 per cent of the population who had been loyal to the British Crown were left unprotected. There continued to be bloodshed, with gangs of revolutionaries attacking gangs of loyalists, particularly in the South. As the British pulled out of the United... More
By the millennium, the Islamic world was prey to an array of centrifugal forces. At its core, the Abbasid caliphate had been reduced to a largely symbolic function by the Buwayhid emirate. In its turn the Buwayhids had passed their peak, and were increasingly threatened by internal dissent, and the... More
In the late 19th century many of America’s roads were ‘wholly unclassable, almost impassable, scarcely jackassable’. The rapid development of a comprehensive railway network had actually resulted in a deterioration, through neglect, in the standard of the nation’s roads. The progenitor of the movement for a Federal Highway system was... More
At the death of Louis V in 987, the Carolingian dynasty had come to an end and the senior Frankish military commander Hugh Capet (r. 987–996) ascended to the French throne, by election rather than inheritance, founding a new Catholic dynasty that was eventually to rule continuously until the French... More
Under the classic feudal system, absolute, unfettered ownership of land resided solely with the monarch. Directly beneath came tenants-in-chief, the feudal barons granted lands in return for military service and taxation. The main manor or castle of a barony was termed the caput; the barons in turn had the right... More
The First Crusade achieved the capture of Jerusalem in July 1099, within months of its arrival in Palestine. No clear plan for governing the captured territory was in place. The papal legate Daimbert of Pisa sought the creation of a theocratic state modelled upon and directly controlled by the papacy,... More
Fighter Command was tasked with defending Britain against German bomber attacks, with four different groups, numbered 10–13, each responsible for a different region of the country. A hierarchical detection and command network received and relayed information about the location of incoming German bomber formations, greatly increasing the speed and accuracy... More
The final phase of the Allied offensive was particularly devastating for the German army because, after years of stalemate, their tactically successful spring offensives made victory seem possible. On 26 September 1918, after victories in Amiens, Arras and Bapaume, the French Commander-in-Chief, Ferdinand Foch, spread a three-prong offensive over the... More
As part of Operation Market Garden, aimed at encircling Germany’s industrial heartland, the Ruhr, British and Polish paratroopers were dropped in the vicinity of Arnhem and Oosterbeek. Their objective was to secure bridges in the area in preparation for the arrival of XXX Corps. The British division and its equipment... More