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Europe in 1871
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Europe in 1871
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The Franco-Prussian war resulted in two reunifications. In the run-up, French troops were withdrawn from Rome and the Papal states enabling completion of the Italian Risorgimento; a crushing Prussian victory saw the proclamation of the German Empire in the war’s aftermath. Earlier in the decade, Italy had also profited from... More
Europe in 1900
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Europe in 1900
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Prussian military victories over Austria (1866) and France (1871) reshaped the map of central Europe, spurring the formation of Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867), and the conversion of the German Confederation into an Empire dominated by Prussia and their guileful Chancellor, Bismarck. With Germany and Italy each achieving unification in 1871, the... More
Europe in 2000
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Europe in 2000
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The map of Europe remained unchanged, but 1989 was a year of revolutions, sweeping away Communist rule in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania. Later, borders would change, with German reunification in 1990, and the disintegration of Yugoslavia: after a decade of war in the 1990s, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and... More
Europe June 1812
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Europe June 1812
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On the eve of his invasion of Russia, Napoleon was notionally at the height of his power, presiding over an empire of 130 departements and 70 million people, but ominous cracks were already appearing in his imperium. From 1811, France experienced a prolonged economic crisis exacerbated by Britain’s economic blockade,... More
Europe September 1944
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Europe September 1944
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The D-Day landings in June 1944 were just the beginning of a hard-fought campaign. German resistance on the eastern flank of the front held the British back, while the Americans broke out to the west. Hitler’s directive that German troops should not make tactical withdrawals meant that in France, as... More
Europe under Nazi Domination, 1942
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Europe under Nazi Domination, 1942
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By late 1942, Nazi domination of Europe seemed complete. Between 1938 and 1939, Austria, most of Poland, and the ethnically Czech western portion of Czechoslovakia had been annexed to the German Empire. By summer 1940, the Wehrmacht’s blitzkrieg had brought much of Western Europe to heel. In Southeastern Europe, Hungary,... More
European Advance c. 1750
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European Advance c. 1750
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Although there is speculation that Norse settlers may have colonized Newfoundland in the 10th century, the Spanish were the first European colonizers in the Americas. By the mid-16th century, they controlled much of South America and southern North America. In 1606, the British government began establishing colonies along the eastern... More
European Alliances and War Plans July 1914
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European Alliances and War Plans July 1914
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In July 1914 Europe consisted of two opposing camps, Austria-Hungary and Germany (the Central Powers) and the Allies: France, Russia and Britain. Under established treaty agreements (the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente), each member was to help the other in the event of military threats from its rival camp. On... More
European Counter Reformation 1545–71
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European Counter Reformation 1545–71
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The period of spiritual, intellectual, cultural and moral revival within the Catholic Church in the 16th and 17th centuries is known as the Counter-Reformation. It was not merely a reaction to the profound criticisms of the Protestants; its roots date back to the 15th century when calls for reform grew... More
European Immigration to US 1891–1929
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European Immigration to US 1891–1929
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The Dillingham Commission (1907) reviewed 21 industries and found 58 per cent of the workforce was made up of immigrants. In the same year 81 per cent of arrivals were from southern and eastern Europe, whereas, until the 1880s, northern and western Europe had been the main contributor. The immigrants’... More
European Imperialism in the Muslim World 1907–21
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European Imperialism in the Muslim World 1907–21
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In 1907, the Ottoman Empire was declining and there was an increasingly nationalistic sentiment amongst the Arab states in the Middle East and, in India, there was the rise of the All-India Muslim League. Increasingly, the occupying European imperialists were worried about threats to their interests, particularly in the Middle... More
European Military Strengths 1914
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European Military Strengths 1914
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In the frenetic arms race that preceded the outbreak of World War I, the pace of technological change, and the perceived rate of growth in the capacity of rivals were both critical destabilizing factors. The German Chief of Staff, Helmuth Von Moltke, declared in June 1914, ‘we are ready –... More