In 1654 the English Commonwealth under Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell, ran the Scottish parliament. Scottish banditry and Royalist uprisings needed to be suppressed and a programme of citadel and fort building was implemented in 1654. General George Monck became governor and his remit was Scottish compliance with Commonwealth rule (Monck’s... More
The long-running feud between Charles I and parliament tipped into open war in August 1642, after rebellions in Scotland and then Ireland precipitated discontent with royal autocracy. Crucially, the Parliamentarian power base was in the wealthy southeast; a royal attempt to move on London was repulsed at Turnham Green. However,... More
The battle of Marston Moor (2 July) was a decisive defeat for the Royalist cause. It shattered the aura of invincibility of Prince Rupert of the Rhine, and established the military reputation of Oliver Cromwell. With the assistance of the Scottish Covenanter army, the Parliamentarians now held sway over the... More
After routing the Royal army at Naseby (14 June 1645), the New Model Army, together with 5,000 prisoners, seized the King’s personal effects, including correspondence exposing his attempts to inveigle Catholic European nations and the Irish Confederation into the war. They published the correspondence under the banner ‘The King’s Cabinet... More
The motivations for early English migration differed markedly between colonies. New England was fundamentally a religious enterprise, to found ‘Zion in the Wilderness’. Further south, in Virginia, settlement was conceived as a commercial enterprise; while the Royal Charter promoted ‘propagation of religion… to infidels and savages’, the nub was the... More
When the Venetian John Cabot, commissioned by Henry VII of England, discovered the coast of North America in 1497, it was the first European arrival in the North American continent since the Vikings. There would be no follow-up for over a century, when the Spanish moved north from the Gulf... More
Edward I, the ‘Hammer of the Scots’ was equally remorseless with wolves, ordering their total extermination. His concern was more the safety of his revenues than that of his subjects. Wolves ate sheep, and tax on wool exports was the ‘jewel in the realm’, chief source of royal income. England... More
The Great Migration of 1620–42 saw approximately 20,000 migrants from England to the American colonies, the largest single recipient being Massachusetts. Nearly half the settlers hailed from East Anglia, but otherwise originated from across the country. Most were indentured servants escaping both a depressed economy and religious intolerance of the... More
In 1606 James I made the first colonial grants to the Plymouth and London Companies. The territories they were empowered to settle were huge, covering the American eastern seaboard from Cape Fear to Nova Scotia. The grants also overlapped, with the provision that any settlements made by the respective companies... More
As the war progressed, and casualties mounted, resistance to enlistment emerged in the North. Draft riots in New York in 1863 claimed over a thousand lives: the slogan ‘a rich man’s war, and a poor man’s fight’, expressed a common popular sentiment. Its veracity is reflected in state rates of... More
The city of Ephesus on the southern coast of Asia Minor had many masters: Lydians, Persians, Seleucids and, finally, the kingdom of Pergamon, before incorporation into the Roman Empire. By the 2nd century CE, it was a substantial city with a population of c. 100,000, a provincial capital and major... More
Yugoslavia was constructed as a multi-ethnic federation by communist leader Marshall Tito in 1945. It was made up of six ethnically diverse republics; Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Slovenia and semi-autonomous Kosovo. After Tito’s death in 1980, bitter inter-ethnic rivalries asserted themselves and there were clashes between different ethnic... More