The slave trade in East Africa appears to have been active to varying degrees before the arrival of Islam with the Arabs. References to African slaves can be found in a number of Chinese texts dating back to at least 1200, meaning that the practice was certainly well established before... More
On the eve of their empire’s expansion, the Mongols were part of a central and northern Asian region dominated by competing empires, many of whom the Khan had conquered by the time of his death in 1227. Genghis Khan was proclaimed supreme ruler of the Mongols in 1206, having fought... More
Over the course of the 16th century the expansionist ambitions of the Ottoman Turks in Europe became focussed on the land route, turning their Balkan borders with the Habsburgs and Poland into a battle-scarred wasteland of tenuous vassal states over the next century. An early casualty was the kingdom of... More
By the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699), the Ottoman Empire ceded large chunks of Balkan territory to the Habsburgs, Venetians and Poles. After a further defeat, the Treaty of Passarowitz (1718) saw the loss of Belgrade, leading Sultan Ahmed to sink into the floral reverie of the ‘Tulip Period’ (1718–30). Augustus... More
The British East India Company had traded with India since the 1600s and, by the beginning of the 18th century, had established trading bases at coastal points, including Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. The main goods traded were cotton, sugar, indigo and opium. The Mughal emperors who dominated much of the... More
The plan for the Easter Rising was developed secretly by a Military Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood. The actual rebellion was to be executed by the paramilitary Irish Volunteers under the guise of a ‘field day’. However, the moderate Chief of Staff of the Volunteers, Eoin MacNeill, discovered the... More
The British authorities in Dublin were aware a rising was planned for Easter Monday, 1916, under the cover of ‘demonstrations’ planned by the paramilitary Irish Volunteers. Their fears were allayed when Volunteer leader Eoin MacNeill announced the cancellation of the demonstrations, but a faction led by Padraig Pearse, the Irish... More
The Boer South African Republic (SAR) came into existence in the 1830s, and was recognized by the British in 1852. At the same time, the British forced independence on Orange Free State (most settlers there preferred to remain a colony). Zoutpansberg and Lydenburg briefly seceded from the SAR, before reincorporation... More
The balance of powers on Europe’s eastern frontiers was undergoing a transition in the middle of the 15th century. To the north, Muscovy was beginning to outrival the Tatar khanates: in the 1480s, Ivan the Great would repulse the Golden Horde, and install a puppet Khan of Khazan. To the... More
Following the Thirty Years’ War, and the pivotal French victory against the Spanish at Rocroi (1643), France’s military reputation was secured, and the period of French hegemony in Europe, under the rule of Louis XIV, began. France initially looked eastward, as a means of facilitating contact with her German allies,... More
In early 1915, the new German Chief of Staff, von Falkenhayn, switched reserves from the west to reinforce beleaguered Austro-Hungary. It was agreed that Austro-Hungary would now operate under German overall command. The newly unified armies achieved a decisive breakthrough in May with the Gorlice-Tranow offensive, proceeding to recapture Przemysl... More
After the failure of German Operation Citadel at Kursk, the final drive to push the Germans out of the Soviet Union began. As part of the Belgorod-Kharkov Offensive Operation, the fourth Battle of Kharkov saw the Soviets make steady ground against the heavily outnumbered Germans to the south whilst nevertheless... More