Showing 49–60 of 2512 results

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  African Resistance to 1914

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  African Resistance to 1914

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  In the ‘Scramble for Africa’, the native populations were largely seen as irrelevant; the real opposition was the rival colonial powers. Bristling with the armaments of the second Industrial Revolution, notably the Maxim machine gun, set-piece battles hugely favoured the colonialists, as at Omdurman (1898), when Kitchener crushed the Mahdist... More
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  African Trade c. 1300–1400

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  African Trade c. 1300–1400

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  Medieval trade links were well-established and prosperous, facilitating the movement of goods between Africa, Europe and the East, and the spread of Islam. In North Africa, Muslim traders sent luxury goods such as textiles, beads and ceramics south, while gold, African ivory, kola nuts and slaves moved north. Huge caravans... More
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  Agriculture 1860

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  Agriculture 1860

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  Up to 1860, although the mainstay of the American economy was agricultural, it had still not become commercialized and most farming was on a subsistence level, with 90 per cent of the population relying on it for their livelihood. In 1860, the agricultural revolution began with the number of farms... More
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  Agriculture in 1920

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  Agriculture in 1920

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  The first two decades of the 20th century were bountiful for American agriculture; the crescendo was reached during World War I, first through exports to Europe, then to feed the American war effort. Measures such as the Homestead Act (1862), offering free land to settlers in the West, had promoted... More
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  Agriculture in England and Scotland 1700–1800

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  Agriculture in England and Scotland 1700–1800

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  The practice of enclosing agricultural land began with the Tudors, but escalated rapidly during the 18th century (from 39 Acts in the 1730s to 660 in the 1770s). The measure promoted greater efficiency, and opened the way to mechanization, with the cause of greater productivity espoused by a wave of... More
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  Agriculture, Raw Materials and Industry 1860

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  Agriculture, Raw Materials and Industry 1860

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  Prior to the Civil War, most of the industrial growth was confined to the northeast and midwest. The northeast dominated the manufacturing and industrial landscape, processing 85 per cent of the raw materials from the midwest and the West. The southern states remained primarily agricultural, although bituminous coal was mined... More
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  Air Defence of Britain 1918

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  Air Defence of Britain 1918

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  By 1918 Britain’s aerial defence capabilities had developed dramatically from just four years earlier. German air raids by Zeppelins, and primarily fixed-wing bombers later on, highlighted the need for a coordinated defence system. Collectively known as the London Air Defence Area, this system comprised outlook posts, ground-based anti-aircraft guns and... More
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  Air Relief for Berlin 12 June 1948–12 May 1949

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  Air Relief for Berlin 12 June 1948–12 May 1949

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  When the Allies introduced the new Deutsche Mark in June 1948 to replace the chronically devalued Reichsmark, the Soviet Union, aiming to keep Germany economically weak, cut off electricity supplies and blocked all Allied rail and road traffic to West Berlin. This left the two million inhabitants of West Berlin... More
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  Aircraft Deployment on the Western Front 1916

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  Aircraft Deployment on the Western Front 1916

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  The French field marshal Ferdinand Foch reputedly said ‘aviation is good sport, but for the army it’s useless’. However, necessity drove rapid innovation, and by 1916 aeroplanes had acquired three critical battlefield functions: reconnaissance, air defence, and bombing. Aerial supremacy switched frequently from side to side, as technological breakthroughs transferred... More
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  Aircraft Deployment on the Western Front 1917

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  Aircraft Deployment on the Western Front 1917

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  1917 began with Germany once more assuming control of the air, epitomized by the exploits of the fighter ace, Manfred von Richtofen, known as the Red Baron. The nadir was ‘bloody April’, when von Richtofen’s squadron alone shot down 80 Allied planes. But then, as often before in the air... More
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  Aircraft Deployment on the Western Front 1918

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  Aircraft Deployment on the Western Front 1918

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  In 1918 nearly 6,000 Allied planes and over 4,000 German planes were deployed on the western front. These planes were used for reconnaissance, air to air combat and attacks on enemy infantry. By 1918 these planes were heavy enough to arm with machine guns and carry grenades. They were also... More
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  Alaskan Boundary Dispute 1898–1903

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  Alaskan Boundary Dispute 1898–1903

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  The Klondike Gold Rush of 1896–98 suddenly made the border between northwestern Canada (then part of the British Empire) and the United States (by then independent and in possession of Alaska after its purchase from Russia in 1867), highly contentious. In addition, there were disagreements concerning the sovereignty of the... More