In the early history of Greece there were three main dialects, Aeolic, Doric and Ionic, which corresponded to the three main tribes of the Greeks. The Aeolians lived chiefly in the eastern Aegean and on the west coast of Asia, north of Smyrna. The Ionic tribes were to be found... More
A number of Allied plans for the invasion of mainland Europe were considered but never came to fruition for various reasons. Plans to invade Norway under Operation Ajax, and later Jupiter, were strongly supported by Churchill as being of tactical importance, however almost all other leading British military figures considered... More
Cuneiform tablets found in excavations of the ancient cities of Mari and Ebla have provided a wealth of information about the history and daily lives of the peoples in early Mesopotamia and Syria. The inhabitants of this region were Sumerian and their earliest settlements were in Sumer around the Persian... More
After the Romans abandoned Britain in 410 CE, the Brittanic tribes were left vulnerable to attack. Consequently, a period of migration into Britain by Germanic tribes began as they settled in the eastern regions and pushed the Britons west. In some places the Britons co-existed with the Germanic settlers, but... More
During the 4th millennium, climatic change led to a desertification process in Egypt. This led the inhabitants to progressively abandon hunting and pastoralism as the main means of sustenance, and concentrate on agriculture with the well-watered flood-plain of the Nile. In Upper Egypt, the yields generated sustained the development of... More
Sargon the Conqueror had an unconventional apprenticeship for an imperial warlord, working first as a gardener, then a canal cleaner. In fact, it was with a corps of fellow drainage engineers that he initially seized power from the King of Kish. Thereafter, he expanded his rule remorselessly, through Gutium and... More
From the 6th century, most of Wales became christianized through the efforts of missionaries, amongst them St David and St Teilo. At this time, there was encroachment from Anglo–Saxon settlers, following the valley of the River Severn into mid-Wales. Anglo-Saxon dominance within England was confirmed at the Battle of Chester... More
After the Romans left Britannia in the early 5th century, Irish Gaelic tribes colonized Celtic northern Wales. The kingdom of Gwynedd was formed after northern Britons (from as far afield as Strathclyde, Scotland) reclaimed the land and drove out the Irish settlers. Several generations later the kingdom of Gwynedd briefly... More
By summer 1864, with the Army of the Potomac converging on his capital, Richmond, Confederate commander Robert E. Lee gambled on a counterstrike, sending General Jubal Early to threaten Washington. Overcoming a lacklustre Union army at Lynchburg (June 18), Early closed on Washington’s outer defences, which were manned by inexperienced... More
While battle broke out at Cold Harbor near Richmond in June 1864, Confederate General Jubal Early was sent north to Maryland to draw Union forces away from the main Confederate army, and to proceed on Washington DC. Early crossed the Potomac at Shepherdstown on 5 July and marched through Harpers... More
The German-led forces in East Africa, commanded by General von Lettow-Vorbeck, never exceeded 14,000. Lacking the resources to fight an offensive war, von Lettow aimed, instead, to tie down Allied troops and firepower: by these criteria, he was conspicuously successful. After an opening campaign of guerilla warfare, von Lettow confronted... More
Two waves of settlement washed over the Great Lakes region a thousand years ago: Nilo-Saharan peoples from Sudan beginning in the 8th century, to be succeeded by Bantu from the west in the 10th century. To the east of Lake Victoria, the varied ecology gave rise to communal specialization in... More