On 26 May 1940, Operation Dynamo began, evacuating Allied troops from the beaches and harbour of Dunkirk in a variety of British vessels. Route Z, the shortest at 39 miles (63 km), could only be used at night because of risk of German fire from the coast. The 55-mile (89... More
The success of the evacuation of Dunkirk – Operation Dynamo – was reliant on a strong and successful rearguard to prevent any German breakthrough that could jeopardize the operation. A 25-mile (40-km) long and 8-mile deep outer perimeter, utilizing the natural waterways and canals around Dunkirk, was the main line... More
The Indian subcontinent was split between numerous rival kingdoms after the fall of the Gupta Empire around 550 CE. Throughout the rest of the first millennium CE, numerous smaller kingdoms fought for control of regional resources and trade routes. Many smaller kingdoms struggled for survival as borders and alliances frequently... More
Between 8000–3500 BCE there was an exponential growth in population and the establishment of the first established settlements and trading routes in Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and Eurasia. Farming and the use of irrigation increased food resources, primarily in valley regions around major rivers, such as the Nile, Euphrates, Tigris, Indus... More
As the Roman grip weakened, seaborne marauding by Germanic tribes upon Britain southern coasts became so incessant that it was named the “Saxon Shore”. When the Romans finally evacuated in 410, the incursions became permanent. The feuding native Britons were able to unite briefly to inflict defeat on the invaders... More
Moctezuma I (1440–69) established a Triple Alliance with the neighbouring city-states of Texcoco and Tlacopan, which would become the Aztec instrument of empire. He extended Aztec dominion to the Gulf coast, subduing the Huastecs. More mettlesome opponents were found closer to home: the Chalco city-state at the southern end of... More
Julius Caesar incorporated Brittany into the Roman Empire by, but only the southeastern corner would become Romanized (‘-ac’ endings adopted from Roman ‘acum’ = ‘town’). In 383, Magnus Maximus, Roman governor of Britain, brought an army to Brittany in his bid to become emperor. These troops are reported to have... More
The Aegean was the conduit for the developments in metallurgy, which ushered in the European Bronze Age at the end of the 4th millennium BCE. Almost two millennia later, it would repeat the service, relaying ironworking technology from its hearth in either Anatolia or northern India. It took some 1,500... More
The Bronze Age in Europe began around 3200 BCE on the coasts of the Aegean, and would reach its apogee in the Minoan civilization of Crete (c. 25001450 BCE). Bronze was manufactured from copper mined in Cyprus and alloyed with tin traded from as far afield as Britain. The Bell... More
The achievements of Hugh Capet, king of the Franks (a dominion, at the time roughly half the size of Berkshire, England), are hugely magnified by hindsight; his precarious dynasty in a minuscule principality somehow endured for over 300 years, by which time the kingdom of France had become a great... More
The Christian church was highly fissiparous and many local Christian movements ended up being condemned and expelled by the “catholic” or “universal” church. The Ebionites, descendants of the original Jewish Christians, regarded Jesus Christ as the Messiah but rejected the doctrine of his divinity and the virgin birth. Gnosticism was... More
Given that escape from religious persecution was a primary factor behind migration to America, it is hardly surprising that the colonies exhibited diversity of religious observance. The strict Puritanism of the early settlements, particularly Massachusetts, spawned new ‘dissenting’ splinter groups. New England would remain predominantly Congregationalist, with a religious meeting-house... More