Since the region opened to European exploration in the 18th century, the northwest corner of North America had been the subject of rival territorial claims by Russia, Spain, Great Britain and the United States. Disputes arose over fishing and navigation rights and over the exploitation of the increasingly important fur... More
After Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE, he left behind a vast empire comprised of independent territories, which extended from Macedonia to India, Egypt and eastern Mediterranean. There was no clear successor to Alexander, which created conflict between many of his commanders, who were greedy for land and power.... More
The 22nd Dynasty belonged to the ‘Chiefs of Libu’, pharaohs of Libyan descent, beginning with Sheshonq I, ‘the Great Chief of Ma’. He reunited Egypt, putting his son in control of Thebes. The Libyan rulers adopted Egyptian royal traditions, but created feudalistic structures ruled by local military commanders, with the... More
It continues to be meaningful to depict the varieties of Christianity across the world on a map, but those regional differences are being put under pressure. Within global communions such as the Roman Catholic or Anglican churches, it is becoming progressively harder to avoid the tensions between the robustly conservative... More
The creation of the Canadian Confederation by the 1867 British North America Act, initiated a flurry of territorial assimilation. The Crown purchased the vast Northwest Territory from the Hudson’s Bay Company, promptly assigning it to the Confederation. This was initially unorganized apart from a ‘postage stamp’ province of Manitoba. British... More
Dred Scott was a slave to John Emerson, an army surgeon. During his career, Emerson moved from Missouri (a ‘slave’ state) to Illinois and Wisconsin Territory (both ‘free’), accompanied on his travels by Scott and, in due course, by Scott’s wife and child. Back in Missouri, Emerson died, and Scott... More
Dublin was the capital of the English Lordship of Ireland. Largely ignored by England, Dublin, had, by the 14th century, become a beleaguered enclave, huddled behind its Pale defences and forced to pay tribute to the predatory Irish clans. The Irish were meant to be excluded from the city, confined... More
Before the Stuart Restoration, Dublin was a miserable relict of less than 9,000 inhabitants depopulated by plague and decades of war. Thereafter, it recovered dramatically, initially under the oversight of the Duke of Ormonde, who decreed that riverside houses must face the River Liffey, preventing its use for dumping waste.... More
The Wide Streets Commission (1757) instigated demolition of Dublin’s narrow medieval streets, replacing them with spacious boulevards. Five major Georgian squares were created (Mountjoy and Rutland, north of the Liffey, St Stephen’s, Fitzwilliam and Merrion on the southside), each girdled by mansions housing the Protestant Ascendancy. Its transport links were... More
By 1880 Dublin, so long Ireland’s dominant city, was threatened with eclipse by the industrial dynamism of Belfast. The degeneration of its housing stock had been accelerated by the vast influx of the destitute during the Great Famine, who remained in decaying inner city tenements, while the middle classes fled... More
The 1925 Dublin Civic Survey was no ersatz municipal document. It avers ‘Housing in Dublin today… is more than a problem – it is a tragedy. Its conditions cause either a rapid or a slow death. Rapid when the houses fall on their tenants… slow, when they remain standing dens... More
By 990, the Vikings, through intermarriage and assimilation with the northern French, the Franks, had become French-speaking Christians. Normandy was no longer a Viking colony, but had become a region of France, with the Norse language extinguished. While the Normans recognized the superiority of the king of France, their territory... More