General Beauregard, the Confederate commander at Charleston, was a skilled engineer who supervised the enhancement of its defences. Its approaches bristled with forts and batteries, and a series of booms impeded the channels, which were also mined. In early April, a squadron of nine Union ironclads anchored outside the harbour-mouth:... More
Machicolations are floorless stone boxes on castle ramparts, used for pouring boiling oil on unwelcome guests. Richard the Lionheart saw them in action on crusade in Syria, and felt impelled to have them fitted in his new top-of-the-range £12,000 castle in Normandy, Château Gaillard. The Château was built (1196–98) on... More
After his defeat at the battle of Chickamauga, Union Commander William Rosecrans, was, according to Abraham Lincoln, ‘stunned like a duck hit on the head’. Now besieged in Chattanooga, General George Thomas replaced Rosecrans in charge of the defending Union Army of the Cumberland, while the new overall commander of... More
By the end of August 1863, the Union Army of the Cumberland led by William Rosecrans had forced the Confederate forces under General Braxton Bragg out of Tennessee. Bragg holed up in the strategically pivotal river port and rail nexus of Chattanooga. On 8 September, with several Union bridgeheads established... More
White Top on the Cheat Mountain Ridge is over 4,000 feet (1,220 m) high, and the home of the Cheat Mountain salamander. It must be a hardy amphibian: in 1861, the first snow fell on August 13, and by September, horses were freezing to death. Colonel Rust led the Confederate... More
The French navy had been instructed by General Washington to block General Cornwallis’s forces escape through Chesapeake Bay to New York. Cornwallis and his 7,500 men awaited naval transport at Yorktown. On 25 August, 14 British ships, under Rear Admiral Hood, joined with Rear Admiral Graves in New York. They... More
The Chicago & Northwestern Line (C&NW) started operating in 1848, when the incomplete Galena & Chicago Union line was taken over by new investors who were determined to see it finished. By 1863 a line had been constructed from Chicago to Omaha, and from then onwards it continued expanding lines... More
The Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific railroad began operating in 1847 and is known for its high-speed Hiawatha sleeper-trains and its electrified central line – the 2,300-mile (3,701-km) Pacific Coast Extension (built between 1906–1909). The railroad grew from the much smaller Milwaukee and Waukesha Railroad, which serviced the lead... More
The Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific was a major railroad which first operated on 10 October 1852, a year after construction began in October 1851. It was formally known as the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific from 1866, by which time three main routes, and 633 miles (1,019 km) of... More
Chickamauga, believed to be a Cherokee word for ‘River of Death’, lived up to this sobriquet when the Union Army of the Cumberland and Confederate Army of Tennessee engaged in bloody combat at Chickamauga Creek, Georgia, on 19 September 1863. The Union commander, Major General Rosecrans, launched an offensive at... More
In the winter of 1862, the regional Union Commander, Ulysses S. Grant planned a two-pronged attack on Vicksburg, one of only two ports on the Mississippi river outside Union control. While Grant himself menaced Vicksburg from the west, across the Mississippi, General William T. Sherman landed with an army of... More
In 1855, the Governor of Washington Territory agreed a reservation of almost 8 million acres (3.2 million hectares) with the Nez Perce tribe. Eight years later, gold was discovered, and the federal government unilaterally subtracted three-quarters of the allocated land. By 1877, the Indian Commissioners determined even this provision was... More