The early 1990s saw a series of fundamental political changes in Europe as the both the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia dissolved and a number of new independent democracies came into being. On 1 January 1993 the federal state of Czechoslovakia split into two separate states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.... More
The French Republic secured victory in the War of the First Coalition in 1797, after it defeated an alliance of European powers, including Prussia and Austria as constituents of the Holy Roman Empire, Britain, Spain, the Netherlands and Portugal, who united against French expansionism and the threat of spreading revolution.... More
In 1720 the Habsburgs dominated Central Europe. The Treaty of The Hague (1720), which followed the defeat of the ambitious Philip V of Spain by the Quadruple Alliance of Britain, France, Austria and the Dutch Republic (Netherlands), consolidated the Habsburg position. Philip was forced to end his claims to lands... More
In 1789 the Habsburg dynasty ruled the Holy Roman Empire, Austria and approximately a hundred German-speaking states in Central Europe, many of which were still ruled by bishops. The Empire also embraced Hungary, Bohemia and much of Italy. Conditions varied greatly in these multiple cities; some were ruled by corrupt... More
By the middle of the 4th century BCE, Rome was a significant regional power in the centre of Italy, leading the Latin league of affiliated city-states. Its main rivals at this stage were the Samnites who had their own league of allies and vassals. The first war (343–41 BCE) between... More
When the Allied counteroffensive forced German forces to retreat behind the Hindenburg Line on 2 September 1918, the writing was on the wall for the Central Powers. By the end of the month, the Line had been breached and Bulgaria had surrendered to the Allies. In October, the German navy... More
In 1911 the champagne riots saw the town of Ay burnt to the ground and the military occupation of the region by 40,000 troops. The rioting arose through a succession of poor harvests exacerbated by the aphid blight Phylloxera. With appellation controls in place, the major champagne houses imported foreign... More
The Battle of Chancellorsville, Virginia, in April ̶ May 1863, was a spectacular Civil War victory under Confederate General Robert E. Lee. President Abraham Lincoln, frustrated by the Union progress in the war, replaced General Ambrose Burnside with General ‘fighting Joe Hooker’. After Hooker crossed the Rappahannock River on 30... More
The site of the imperial city of Chang’an was expanded and moved south of the original site it occupied during the Han dynasty. When construction of the new city began during the Sui dynasty in 582, it was briefly renamed Daxing; the first emperor of the T’ang dynasty reverted back... More
Charlemagne became king of the Franks when his brother died in 771 and quickly set about a widespread campaign of military expansion throughout Europe. Charlemagne was staunchly Catholic and forced peoples in invaded lands to convert. He quickly imposed himself over the Lombards in northern Italy, forcing them to submit... More
By the time of his death on 28 January 814, Charlemagne had conquered most of western Europe and instituted a number of lasting changes to its social and political landscape. Charlemagne was instrumental in the spread of Catholic Christianity throughout the German lands in particular and prioritized education and law... More
Following the American Revolution (1757–87) the new republic’s rapidly expanding population moved westward, outrunning the structures of the old hierarchical churches. The Baptists and Methodists flourished in this new climate. The newly independent American states were committed to a policy of open religious toleration while denying special privileges or official... More