In 1959, after Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista’s dictatorship and made Cuba the first Communist state in the western hemisphere, the US were determined to keep governments sympathetic to communism out of Latin America. The US immediately imposed a trade embargo on Cuba and began assisting in the suppression of... More
Latin American allegiances in World War I were complex, often reflecting the heterogeneous ancestry of their migrant populations. However, the hardships caused by the German shipping blockade of the Atlantic caused rising resentment, and left the US the dominant trading partner and power-broker in the region. The tipping point came... More
In the first partition of Poland in 1772 substantial areas of Polish territory had been annexed by Austria, Russia and Prussia, changing the balance of power in Central Europe. In 1789 the eruption of the French Revolution began a further wave of fundamental change within the traditional social hierarchy across... More
After the third partition of Poland, settled on 26 January 1797, Poland disappeared from the map of Europe and its lands were divided between Prussia, the Habsburg Dominions, and the Russian Empire. The numerous small principalities and duchies on the Rhine left bank became French Republic puppet states after their... More
Following the decisive French victories over the Russian and Austrian armies at the Battle of Austerlitz and the final defeat of the Austrians at Ulm in December 1805, Austria was forced to make significant territorial concessions under the Treaty of Pressburg. This ended the War of the Third Coalition and... More
On 12 July 1806, after ten years of diplomatic wooing, sixteen German client states, which included Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau, and Berg, signed the Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine. The ‘Protector of the Confederation’ was the French Emperor, Napoleon I. The Confederation was happy to declare loyalty... More
Following Napoleon’s creation of the Confederation of the Rhine from former Austrian territories, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II renounced his throne, thereby dissolving the Holy Roman Empire, which had been in continuous existence since the year 962. The loss of many of the western states that came under the loose... More
By 1810, Napoleon Bonaparte’s domination of continental Europe seemed unchallengeable. Five enemy coalitions had been formed against him: each had been militarily outclassed and forced to sue for peace on humiliating terms. The War of the Third Coalition had ended in 1806 with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire... More
Before Napoleon’s attempted invasion of Russia in the winter of 1812, France was on its way towards domination of mainland Europe. A series of defeats suffered by successive European alliances at the hands of Napoleon had gradually reduced the strength and territories of France’s main continental rivals, Austria and Prussia.... More
In March 1815, at the Congress of Vienna, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia formed the ‘Seventh Coalition’ determined to end the European rule of Napoleon, whom they declared ‘an outlaw’. Upon his return from exile on the island of Elba, Napoleon reassembled an army and successfully fought various minor... More
At the breakout of World War I, the borders of central Europe had generally coalesced into large nation states and regional empires which had incorporated the numerous small principalities and kingdoms that were spread across the region throughout much of the 19th century. The unification of Germany under the large... More
Following the defeat of Germany and Austro-Hungary at the end of World War I, the Treaty of Versailles was drawn up and signed on 28 June 1919 in an attempt to weaken Germany and punish it for its aggression, which was seen as the cause of the conflict. In addition... More