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Catholic Empires of the Americas c. 1650
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Catholic Empires of the Americas c. 1650
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The colonization of the new world began with Christopher Columbus’ discovery of Hispaniola in 1492. The Spanish began building an empire in the Caribbean, and conquistadores soon followed, penetrating deep into Central and South America, and south-western North America, and conquering the great indigenous civilisations of Aztec Mexico (1519–21) and... More
Catholic Insurrections and the Armada 1569–97
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Catholic Insurrections and the Armada 1569–97
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Philip II of Spain, representing Catholic Europe, was determined to overthrow England’s Protestant regime (the Empresa [Enterprise] de Inglaterra), and come to the aid of England’s rebellious Catholics. Elizabeth’s military intervention in the Dutch Revolt against Spain in 1584–85 made invasion inevitable. His Armada of 130 ships finally arrived off... More
Catholicism and Orthodoxy c. 1000
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Catholicism and Orthodoxy c. 1000
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In 1054 the lengthy process of the East–West Schism began after Pope Leo IX sent a legate to Constantinople to dispute the eastern interpretation of the Holy Trinity and to proclaim his right to be head of both the western and eastern Churches. When Michael I Cerularius, head of the... More
Catholicism in Ireland 1922
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Catholicism in Ireland 1922
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In 1922, Catholicism was the predominant Christian faith in Ireland. It comprised 92.6 per cent of the population of the new Irish Free State and 36 per cent of the population of Northern Ireland: Fermanagh, Tyrone, Derry, Armagh, Antrim and Down. In Northern Ireland, only two of the six counties... More
Cattle Drives in the West 1860–90
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Cattle Drives in the West 1860–90
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Cattle drives had flourished since the Civil War by moving surplus stock produced in the Texas breeding grounds to the maturing/fattening grounds of the northern prairies. Their routes spawned boisterous cattle towns where cowboys let off steam and lawmen like Wyatt Earp plied their trade. The famous Chisholm Trail was... More
Celtic Anatolia c. 270 BCE
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Celtic Anatolia c. 270 BCE
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The War of the Diadochi (322–275 BCE), was a protracted series of conflicts between Alexander’s generals (and eventually their sons) over the control of his vast empire. In 281 BCE, a vast alliance of Celtic tribes exploited the instability to invade Greece defeating and killing the ruling Diadoch heir, Ptolemy... More
Celtic Britain and the Lost Lands 500–770 CE
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Celtic Britain and the Lost Lands 500–770 CE
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By the time the Romans left Britain in c. 406 CE, much of modern England and Wales was controlled by Celtic warlords, the first ‘Britons’. In c. 450 CE England was invaded by waves of Germanic peoples (Anglo-Saxons). They were unable to subdue the tribal regions of modern Cornwall and... More
Celtic Saints and their Areas of Influence 500-700
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Celtic Saints and their Areas of Influence 500-700
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Christianity arrived early in the British Isles: an Aristobulus is recorded as a ‘bishop’ there in the 1st century, soon after the Roman conquest. By the late 4th century, Ireland had produced the influential theologian Pelagius, who rejected predestination and believed in the doctrine of free will. The collapse of... More
Celtic Trade c. 500 BCE
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Celtic Trade c. 500 BCE
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According to a legend related by Livy, the Roman historian, a Gallic traveller to Italy returned with figs, grapes, wine and oil. Supposedly, these exotica generated so much excitement that they spurred the ensuing occupation of northern Italy by the Celtic tribes. During the early Hallstatt period, Celtic control of... More
Celts in Cisalpine Gaul 400 BCE
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Celts in Cisalpine Gaul 400 BCE
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The Roman chronicler Livy recorded the first Celtic incursions in Italy (under their king, Bellovesus ) in the 6th century BCE. A more concerted invasion occurred around 400 BCE, culminating in the sacking of Rome by the Senones, a Celtic tribe, in 390 BCE. The Senones subsequently settled along the... More
Celts in the British Isles c. 450–50 BCE
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Celts in the British Isles c. 450–50 BCE
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Although Roman historians have provided commentary on the Celtic tribes current at the time of the Roman invasions in 51 BCE and 43 CE, the archaeological evidence suggests the British Celts, an Iron Age people, migrated from central Europe, c. 450 BCE. Pre-Roman conquest, the Celts lived in hillforts or... More
Central Africa 1884–94
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Central Africa 1884–94
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The Berlin Conference (1884–85) fired the starting gun for the ‘Scramble for Africa’. Britain was the most ubiquitous, with Cecil Rhodes (‘I would annex planets if I could’) carrying out a concerted land grab from the south, while a network of British protectorates in the north stretched from Egypt to... More